March 1930 Chronology

1930

Pan-African Chronology

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March

*Filemona Indire, a politician who served as a Member of the Parliament of Kenya from 1983 to 1988, was born Vihiga, Kenya Colony (March).

Filemona F. Indire (b. March 1930, Vihiga, Kenya Colony) was Kenya's ambassador to Russia (then called, the Soviet Union) in the 1960s during Kenya's first president Jomo Kenyatta's tenure. After that, he served as a lecturer at the University of Nairobi.

Indire was an influential Kenyan Quaker, having served as Chairman of the Friend's World Committee for Consultation Africa Section, a Quaker organization that works to communicate between all parts of  the Quakerism.  He was also the Chairman of the National Council for Science and Technology in Nairobi, Kenya. 

Indire married Abigail Indire, one of the first of 10 African-Kenyan girls to attend high school in Kenya's history. She joined what was then called African Girls High School, but is now known as Alliance Girls High School. She helped lay and pave the pathway for what has become an esteemed and storied institution in Kenyan education.

Indire wrote several books including A Comprehensive High School Curriculum Proposal for Reviewing and Revising the Program of Chavakali Secondary School, Maragoli, Kenya (1962) This study centered on the development of a curriculum which would assist in adequately meeting the needs of high school students in Western Kenya. 

Another study that Indire wrote, was a series of 15 books in collaboration with John W. Hanson, Secondary Level Teachers: Supply and Demand in Kenya.  The study, published in 1971, was a report on the supply of secondary level teachers in Kenya. It focused on the problem of forecasting the likely demand for non-Kenyan personnel for staffing secondary level institutions up to the year 1975, and it attempted to analyze the very real problem (at the time) of teacher supply within the context of the social and economic conditions of Kenya during the period leading up to the mid-1970s. Other topics examined included the projected expansion of other types of secondary-level education, programs for the preparation of teachers, major factors in teacher recruitment and retention, projected gaps in the teaching force, priorities in the provision and use of expatriate teachers, and recommendations of primary concern for the Kenyan authorities of the day.

Indire was also a member of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya commonly referred to as the Davy Koech Commission.  The commission was established on May 15, 1998, by the president of Kenya at the time, Daniel Arap Moi.

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March 9

*Jazz saxophonist Ornette Coleman, the principal initiator and leading exponent of free jazz, was born in Fort Worth, Texas.

Ornette Coleman (Randolph Denard Ornette Coleman) (b. March 9, 1930, Fort Worth, Texas - d. June 11, 2015, New York City, New York), was an American jazz saxophonist, composer, and bandleader who was the principal initiatior and leading exponent of free jazz in the late 1950s.

Coleman began playing alto, then tenor saxophone as a teenager and soon became a working musician in dance bands and rhythm-and-blues groups.  Early in his career, his approach to harmony was already unorthodox and led to his rejection by established musicians in Los Angeles, where he lived for most of the 1950s.  While working as an elevator operator, he studied harmony and played an inexpensive plastic alto saxophone at obscure nightclubs.  Until then, all jazz improvisation had been based on fixed harmonic patterns.  In the "harmolodic theory" that Coleman developed in the 1950s, however, improvisers abandoned harmonic patterns ("chord changes") in order to improvise more extensively and directly upon melodic and expressive elements.  Because the tonal centers of such music changed at the improvisers' will, it became known as "free jazz."

In the late 1950s, Coleman formed a group with trumpeter Don Cherry, drummer Billy Higgins, and bassist Charlie Haden, with whom he recorded his first album, Something Else (1958).  His classic recordings, The Shape of Jazz to Come and Change of the Century in 1959 preceded his move that year to New York City, where his radical conception of structure and the urgent emotionality of his improvisations aroused widespread controversy.  His recordings Free Jazz (1960), which used two simultaneously improvising jazz quartets, and Beauty Is a Rare Thing (1961), in which he successfully experimented with free meters and tempos, also proved influential.

In the 1960s, Coleman taught himself to play the violin and trumpet, using unorthodox techniques.  By the 1970s, he was performing only irregularly, preferring instead to compose.  His most notable extended composition is the suite Skies of America, which was recorded in 1972 by the London Symphony Orchestra joined by Coleman on alto saxophone.  Influenced by his experience of improvising with Rif musicians of Morocco in 1973, Coleman formed an electric band called Prime Time, whose music was a fusion of rock rhythms with harmonically free collective improvisations.  This band remained his primary performance vehicle until the 1990s.

Coleman's early style influenced not only fellow saxophonists but also players of all other instruments in jazz.  In recognition of such accomplishment, Coleman received the Japan Art Association's Praemium Imperiale prize for music in 2001.  In 2005, with a quartet made up of two acoustic double bass players (one bowing his instrumennt, the other plucking), a drummer, and Coleman himself (playing alto saxophone, trumpet, and violin), he recorded Sound Grammar during a live performance in Italy; the work, which was said to hearken back to his music of the 1960s, was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for music in 2007. 

Coleman was largely a self-taught musician, although in 1959 he attended the School of Jazz at Lenox, Massachusetts.  Coleman first played with Peewee Cranton's Rhythm and Blues Band in New Orleans.  From 1952 to 1954, he had his own band in Fort Worth, Texas.  He then moved to Los Angeles and made his first recording in Hollywood on alto saxophone.  In 1959, he formed his own quartet.  Coleman, a composer as well as a saxophonist, violinist and trumpeter, toured Europe and influenced European jazz.  Though infrequently heard, and with only a few LP's, Coleman is, nevertheless, one of the giants of modern music, and was hailed as the first true innovator since bop.

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March 13

*Jazz trumpeter Richard "Blue" Mitchell was born in Miami, Florida.

Richard Allen (Blue) Mitchell (b. March 13, 1930, Miami, Florida – d. May 21, 1979, Los Angeles, California) was an American jazz, rhythm and blues, soul, rock, and funk trumpeter, known for many albums recorded as leader and sideman on Blue Note Records. 

Mitchell was born and raised in Miami, Florida. He began playing trumpet in high school where he acquired his nickname, Blue. 

After high school he played in the rhythm and blues ensembles of Paul Williams, Earl Bostic, and Chuck Willis. After returning to Miami he was noticed by Cannonball Adderley, with whom he recorded for Riverside Records in New York in 1958. He then joined the Horace Silver Quintet playing with tenor Junior Cook, bassist Gene Taylor and drummer Roy Brooks. Mitchell stayed with Silver’s group until the band’s break-up in 1964. After the Silver quintet disbanded, Mitchell formed a group employing members from the Silver quintet substituting the young pianist Chick Corea for Silver and replacing a then sick Brooks with drummer Al Foster. This group produced a number of records for Blue Note disbanding in 1969, after which Mitchell joined and toured with Ray Charles until 1971. From 1971 to 1973 Mitchell performed with John Mayall on Jazz Blues Fusion. 

From the mid-1970s, Mitchell recorded, and worked, as a session man; performed with the big band leaders Louie Bellson, Bill Holman and Bill Berry; and was principal soloist for Tony Bennett and Lena Horne. Other band leaders Mitchell recorded with include Lou Donaldson, Grant Green, Philly Joe Jones, Jackie McLean, Hank Mobley, Johnny Griffin, Al Cohn, Dexter Gordon and Jimmy Smith. Blue Mitchell kept his hard-bop playing going with the Harold Land quintet up until his death from cancer on May 21, 1979, in Los Angeles, at the age of 49.

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March 21

*President Hoover appointed Judge John J. Parker of North Carolina, a known racist, to the Supreme Court.  The NAACP launched a successful campaign against Parker's confirmation.

John Johnston Parker ( b. November 20, 1885, Monroe, North Carolina – d. March 17, 1958, Washington, D. C.) was a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.  He was an unsuccessful nominee for Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court in 1930. He was also the United State's alternate judge at the Nuremberg trials of accused Nazi war criminals and later served on the United Nations' International Law Commission.

Born on November 20, 1885, in Monroe, North Carolina, Parker received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1907 from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and received a Bachelor of Laws in 1908 from the University of North Carolina School of Law. He entered private practice in Greensboro, North Carolina from 1908 to 1909. He was in private practice in Monroe from 1909 to 1922. He was a Republican candidate for the United States House of Representatives from North Carolina in 1910. He was a candidate for Attorney General of North Carolina in 1916. Parker was the Republican candidate for Governor of North Carolina in 1920. He was in private practice in Charlotte, North Carolina from 1922 to 1925. He was a special assistant to the Attorney General of the United States from 1923 to 1924.

Parker received a recess appointment from President Calvin Coolidge on October 3, 1925, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit vacated by Judge Charles Albert Woods.  He was nominated to the same position by President Coolidge on December 8, 1925. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on December 14, 1925, and received his commission the same day. He was a member of the Conference of Senior Circuit Judges (now the Judicial Conference of the United States) from 1931 to 1948, and was a member of the Judicial Conference of the United States from 1948 to 1957. Parker served as Chief Judge from 1948 to 1958. His service terminated on March 17, 1958, due to his death in Washington, D. C.  At the time of his death, Parker was the last appeals court judge appointed by President Coolidge still in active service.

On March 21, 1930, Parker was nominated by President Herbert Hoover to the United States Supreme Court  to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Justice Edward Terry Sanford, but, as a result of political opposition, was defeated in the Senate by a vote of 41-39.

Parker was opposed by labor groups because of an opinion he had written regarding the United Mine Workers and yellow-dog contracts -- contracts which prohibited workers from joining a union as a condition of employment.  Parker was also opposed by the nascent National Association for the Advancement of Colored People -- the NAACP -- because of remarks he had made while a candidate for North Carolina governor in 1920 about the participation of  African Americans in the political process: "The participation of the Negro in politics," said Parker, "is a source of evil and danger to both races and is not desired by the wise men in either race or by the Republican Party of North Carolina." The NAACP asked Parker if he had been quoted correctly, and asked him if he still held such views.  Parker never responded. Parker's supporters pointed out that his opinion in the labor case closely followed Supreme Court precedent and his 1920 remarks were in response to charges that the Republican Party was organizing the African American vote.

 Rather than lobbying senators, the usual practice of the NAACP, Walter White, the new Executive Secretary of the NAACP, urged the branches and members to telegraph their senators and threaten to oppose them in the elections that were to take place later that year. When the Senate narrowly defeated Parker's nomination 41-39, White said the NAACP's opposition had been the deciding factor and lavished praise on the branches that had threatened their senators with their opposition to any who supported Parker.

The rejection of Parker's nomination by the United States Senate was a major victory for the NAACP and was the first such Supreme Court nomination rejected through a roll call vote since that of Wheeler Hazard Peckham in 1894.  After the Senate rejected Parker's nomination, President Hoover nominated Owen Roberts to the seat, and the Senate voted to confirm Roberts on May 20, 1930.

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March 22

*Willie Thrower, the first African American to appear at the quarterback position in the National Football League, was born in New Kensington, Pennsylvania.

Willie Lee Thrower (b. March 22, 1930, New Kensington, Pennsylvania – d. February 20, 2002, New Kensington, Pennsylvania) was an American football quarterback. Born near Pittsburgh in New Kensington, Pennsylvania, Thrower was known as "Mitts" for his large hands and arm strength compared to his 5'11" frame.  He was known to be able to toss a football 70 yards.  Thrower was part of the 1952 Michigan State Spartans who won the national championship.  He became the first African American to appear at the quarterback position in the National Football League (NFL), playing for the Chicago Bears in 1953. 

Thrower played halfback in the single-wing formation for New Kensington High (present-name: Valley High School) as a freshman just after the end of World War II in 1945. Single wing halfbacks received a direct center snap, and then had run, handoff, or pass options. The team lost 2 games. However, head coach Don Fletcher moved Thrower to quarterback. From his sophomore to senior years, New Kensington won 24 straight games, including the 1946 and 1947 Western Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic League (WPIAL) Class AA championships. As quarterback, Thrower would only lose one game in his career. As a dual-threat quarterback, Thrower was also an All-WPIAL and all-state first team honors, and he was named captain for an All-American scholastic selection covering the nation east of the Mississippi River. His final high school record was 35-3-1.

Despite his accomplishments, Thrower still experienced racism. In 1947, the Miami, Florida Peanut Bowl, featuring top high school teams around the country, rescinded the invitation it had extended to New Kensington High School to play in the annual prep classic game when organizers saw a photograph of its star. In addition, many colleges opted not to extend Thrower a scholarship when they discovered his ethnicity.

After graduating, Thrower chose to play collegiate football for the Michigan State Spartans alongside some of his high school teammates William Horrell, Joseph Klein, Renaldo Kozikowski, Vincent Pisano, and the Tamburo brothers, Harry and Richard. He would remain in East Lansing from 1949–1952, competing for playing time at quarterback with All-Americans Al Dorow and Tom Yewcic.  Under head coach Clarence "Biggie" Munn, Thrower became the first black quarterback to play in the Big Ten Conference in 1950 in his first year of varsity eligibility (NCAA rules dictated no freshman on varsity preventing Thrower, who was a freshman in 1949, to play) although during the first two years of his varsity career, he only attempted 14 passes.

During the 1952 championship season, Thrower was an integral part of the title run, completing 59 percent of his passes (29-of-43) for 400 yards and five touchdowns. In a crucial game with Notre Dame, Thrower stepped in for an injured Tom Yewcic and threw a touchdown in a 21-3 win. In his final game in a Spartan uniform, Thrower completed seven of his 11 attempts for 71 yards and a touchdown, and added a rushing touchdown in a dominating 62-13 win over Marquette that sealed the nation's No. 1 ranking, and championship, for Michigan State.

Although Thrower was not drafted in 1953,  he was offered a one year, $8,500 contract with the Chicago Bears. He became the backup quarterback and roommate to future Pro Football Hall of Famer George Blanda.

As a professional, Thrower did not play until October 18, 1953 against the San Francisco 49ers.  Bears coach George Halas was unhappy with Blanda's play and pulled him, sending in Thrower. He moved the team to the 15-yard line of the 49ers, but was denied a chance to score a touchdown when Halas put Blanda back into the game. The Bears eventually lost the game 35-28. Thrower completed 3 out of 8 passes for 27 yards, and had one interception. He would only play one more game for the Bears, who released Thrower after the 1953 season.

In 1979, Thrower was elected to the Westmoreland County Sports Hall of Fame. In 1981, he was inducted into AK Valley Hall of Fame. In 2003, an official state marker was dedicated to him in his high school. In 2011, he was inducted into the WPIAL Hall of Fame. Although, Thrower was the first African-American quarterback in the NFL, Fritz Pollard was the first African American to play on a championship team (1920), as well as the first African American quarterback (1923) and coach (1919).

He died of a heart attack in New Kensington, Pennsylvania on February 20, 2002, at the age of 71.

In 2006, a statue of Thrower was erected near Valley High School in New Kensington to honor his accomplishments. The statue was unveiled during a Valley High School football game in September attended by Pittsburgh Steelers owner Dan Rooney as well as Thrower's family. Willie Thrower was also mentioned by former NFL quarterback Warren Moon in his Pro Football Hall of Fame acceptance speech. Moon thanked Thrower, among others, for giving him inspiration during a time when few African-Americans played the quarterback position in the NFL.

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March 24

*David Dacko, the first President of the Central African Republic, was born in the village of Bouchia, near Mbaiki in the Lobaye region, which was then a part of the French Equatorial African territory of Moyen Congo (Middle Congo) (March 24).

David Dacko  (b. March 24,1930, Bouchia, Moyen-Congo, French Equatorial Africa [now in the Central African Republic] – d. November 20, 2003, Yaounde, Cameroon) was the first President of the Central African Republic from August 14, 1960 to January 1, 1966, and the third President from September 21, 1979 to  September 1, 1981. After his second removal from power in a coup d'etat led by General Andre Kolingba, he pursued an active career as an opposition politician and presidential candidate with many loyal supporters. Dacko was an important political figure in the country for over 50 years.

David Dacko, a former teacher, held ministerial posts under Barthelemy Boganda,  the prime minister of the autonomous Central African Republic. Claiming a family relationship, Dacko succeeded to the prime ministership in 1959 after Boganda’s death. In 1960, the republic gained its full independence, and Dacko became the country’s first president. He ruled the Central African Republic as a one-party state and in 1962 easily won the presidential elections. Dacko was unable to improve the country’s failing economy, however, and, with the Central African Republic facing bankruptcy, he was overthrown by Jean-Bedel Bokassa on the night of December 31, 1965/January 1, 1966.

On September 21, 1979, after 13 years of brutal rule (which included Bokassa’s proclamation of a “Central African Empire”), Dacko, aided by French troops, in turn overthrew Bokassa, announcing that the country would revert to a republic with Dacko as president. His presidency was again plagued by numerous problems. Soon after taking office, Dacko survived an assassination attempt, and, following his re-election in 1981, there were riots in Bangui. Dacko was removed from office in September 1981, when General André Kolingba seized power. 

On September 1, 1981, Dacko was overthrown in a bloodless coup carried out by army chief of staff General Andre Kolingba,  who may have had the support of local French security officers who are suspected of having acted without authorization from Francois Mitterand's new Socialist government in France. Such allegations may never be substantiated, but Kolingba did subsequently enjoy a very close relationship with France and a presidential security team led by Colonel Mantion. Dacko, unharmed, later returned to politics to lead the Movement for Democracy and Development (MDD), a party opposing Kolingba. Dacko participated in the presidential elections of  1992 and 1993 and in the latter obtained 20.10% of the votes cast.

André-Dieudonné Kolingba was the fourth President of the Central African Republic (CAR), from September 1, 1981 until October 1, 1993. He took power from President David Dacko in a bloodless coup d'etat in 1981 and lost power to Ange-Felix Patassé in a democratic election held in 1993.

During Patassé's first and second presidential terms (1993–99 and 1999–2003), Dacko continued to participate actively in politics as a leader of the opposition. Dacko and Kolingba were the main leaders of the opposition, with Kolingba having more influence than Dacko. Dacko ran for president for the last time in the 1999 elections, coming in third place with 11.2% of the vote.

After General Francois Bozize overthrew Patassé and proclaimed himself president, Dacko participated in the Dialogue nationale (National Dialogue) that began on September 9, 2003, but shortly thereafter, on September 27, 2003, Dacko suffered a chronic asthma attack.  He headed to France to seek treatment, but during a stopover in Yaounde, Cameroon on November 7, Dacko was taken to the General Hospital of Yaounde where he died at 10 p.m. on 20 November 20, 2003. 

The Central African government declared a month of national mourning in Dacko's memory. On December 13, 2003, he was buried in Mokinda, near his residence.

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The Central African Republic is a landlocked country about the size of France located in the center of the African continent.  The area that is now the Central African Republic has been settled for at least 8,000 years. The earliest inhabitants were the probable ancestors of today’s Aka (Pygmy) peoples, who live in the western and southern forested regions of the country. The slave state of Dar al-Kuti occupied the northern reaches until the various regions of the Central African Republic were brought under French colonial rule late in the 19th century. Colonial administrators favored some ethnic groups over others, resulting in political rivalries that persisted after independence in 1960. Following periods of civil strife and dictatorial government, including the infamous regime of Jean-Bedel Bokassa, the self-styled Emperor Bokassa I (who renamed the country the Central African Empire), the country embarked on a course of democracy. However, at the end of the twentieth century, this fledling democracy was threatened by inter-ethnic civil war in neighboring countries as well as by attempted coups d’état within the country. Weary of social chaos and shifting allegiances among contending elements of the power elite, the country’s citizens quote a regional proverb, "When elephants fight, the grass suffers; when elephants make love, the grass still suffers."

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March 30

*Sterling Betancourt, a Trinidad-born musical pioneer, inventor, and arranger who became a major figure in pioneering the steel pan in Europe and the United Kingdom, was born in Laventille, near Port of Spain, Trinidad.

Sterling Betancourt (b. March 30, 1930, Laventille, near Port of Spain, Trinidad) was born and raised in Laventille, near Port of Spain, Trinidad.  His father, Edwin, was a musician and a man of many trades trying to make ends meet. His mother, Stella Bowen, was a seamstress and a cleaner. At a very early age, Betancourt was involved with music with the Tambo Bambo family band and grew up experimenting with the steel pan, becoming a member of the Tripoli Steel band. He began his career in the 1930s and became a steel pan tuner and eventually leader of Crossfire, a steel band from the St. James area. He also played a large part in the development of steel pan in Trinidad,

Selected as a member of TASPO (Trinidad All-Steel Percussion Orchestra) to go to the Festival of Britain in 1951, Betancourt toured England and Europe with the band that year. He was the only musician of TASPO to remain on in England when the others returned to Trinidad on December 12, 1951. 

Betancourt together with Russell Henderson and Mervyn Constantine, who later on was replaced by Max Cherrie, followed by his brother Ralph Cherrie, formed the first steelband in the United Kingdom and performed all over London as well as in radio shows, jazz clubs and on the BBC.
  
In 1953, Betancourt was taught by Tony Kinsey to play the traps drums in order to form The Henderson combo.  Henderson, Betancourt and their group participated in the multi-cultural Notting Hill street festival organized in 1966 by Rhaune Laslett.  The appearance of the Henderson combo was a huge success and led to the growth in popularity of the festival and its Trinidadian musicality.

Betancourt also took steelpan to many other countries throughout Europe and Asia, including Switzerland, Hong Kong, Bahrain, Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Qatar, Morocco, Indonesia, Germany, Spain, France, Oman, Italy, Sicily, Sweden and Norway.

A 1976 performance Betancourt gave in a hotel in Zurich, Switzerland,  inspired some locals to form their own Swiss group, which they called Tropefieber ("Tropical Fever"), the first steel band in Zurich, followed then by many others.

In 1985 Betancourt's steel band, "Nostalgia", was born and continued with him as the leader, player and arranger until 2005.

The honors and awards that Betancourt received include: in 1993, Trinidad and Tobago’s Scarlet Ibis award; a University of East London Honorary Fellowship in 1996; a membership of the FRSA (Fellowship of the Royal Society of the Arts) for his commitment in promoting steelpan culture throughout the United Kingdom, and pioneering steelpan projects in English schools; and in the same year, the New York Sunshine Award.

Betancourt was appointed a Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours 2002 "for services to the steel band movement".  In 2004, Betancourt received a Fellowship of the Royal Society; in 2006, a Pantrinbago Pioneer award; in 2010, Pan Jazz Life Time Achievement award; and, in 2011, a Pan Trinbago Commemorative Plaque for Life Time Achievement.

In 2012, on the occasion of the Trinidad and Tobago Independence Jubilee celebrations, he was a recipient of one of the Arts awards recognizng citizens who made a positive contribution to the promotion and development of Trinidad and Tobago in the United Kingdom during the past 50 years, given at a gala dinner in London hosted by High Commissioner Garvin Nicholas.

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March 31

*Gugsa Welle, the husband of the Ethiopian Empress Zewditu and the Shum (Governor) of Begemder Province, was met by forces loyal to Negus Tafari (the future Haile Selassie) and was defeated at the Battle of Anchem.  Gugsa Welle was killed in action. 

Gugsa Welle (b. 1875, Marto in Yejju Province, Ethiopia – d. March  31, 1930), also known as Gugsa Wale, Gugsa Wolie and Gugsa Wele, was an army commander and a member of the Royal family of the Ethiopian Empire. He represented a provincial ruling elite which was often at odds with the Ethiopian central government.Gugsa Wale was born in Marto in Yejju Province. He was the son of Ras Welle Betul and the nephew of Empress Taytu Betul. His half-sister, Kefey Wale, was the second wife of Ras Mangesha Yohannes, the natural son of Emperor Yohannes IV.

Taytu Betul arranged the marriage of Gugsa Wale to Leult Zewditu, the eldest daughter of Emperor Menelek II and an earlier wife. Gugsa and Zewditu were married in 1900, six years before her elevation to Empress. Gugsa was her fourth husband. Upon his marriage to Zewditu, Gugsa Wale was immediately promoted to Ras over Begemder Province. This alliance allowed Empress Taytu to extend her influence over this important province. Despite the political nature of this marriage, the two were happy. However, in 1909, Gugsa was summoned to Addis Ababa by Menelek II to respond to the charge that he had mistreated Zewditu.

Ras Gugsa came close to becoming the power behind the throne during the intrigue that characterized the years of Emperor Menelik II's senility.  In 1909, the Empress Taytu made a serious effort to prevent the accession of Lij Iyasu as Menelik's successor. This led to the rumor that Empress Taytu and her brother, Ras Wale Betul, intended to move the capital to Gondar and make Ras Gugsa the Emperor.  However, the Shewan aristocracy agreed that their authority, positions and honors depended on obeying Menelik's wishes, and they united behind Lij Iyasu as the successor. Despite this setback, Ras Gugsa initially supported the resulting status quo.  When Dejazmach Abraha Araya rebelled in Tigray, Gugsa supported Dejazmach Abate Bwalu who was sent to suppress this threat, helping him to defeat Dejazmach Abraha in the Battle of Lake Ashenge on October 9.

However, once Iyasu was secure as Emperor the following year, Ras Gugsa was arrested on a murder charge. By late April, he was in chains in Addis Ababa and no longer a potential threat to the government. This confinement proved to be cruel. Gugsa was kept in chains for so long that his legs became swollen and the metal cut into his flesh. Zewditu begged Iyasu's short-lived Regent, Ras Tessema Nadew, to ease conditions for Gugsa. But it was not until 1915, when she was relegated to Falle, that Gugsa was released and the two were allowed to live together.

In 1916, a successful coup d'etat against Iyasu resulted in his being deposed and Zewditu being proclaimed Empress. Iyasu's father, Mikael of Wollo, then invaded Shewa Province with an army to restore Iyasu. Mikael was defeated in the Battle of Segale.  With Iyasu deposed, Zewditu became "Queen of Kings" and Empress of Ethiopia, and her young cousin Tafari Makonnen became heir to the throne and Regent of the Empire.

Empress Zewditu and Gugsa were restored to good graces. But the Shewan leadership, leery of a resurgence of the influence of Dowager Empress Taitu and her family, forced Gugsa to separate from Zewditu and he was sent to Gondar where he served once again as Governor of Begemder. Gugsa also served as Governor of Semien at this time.

The crowning of Tafari Makonnen was controversial. He occupied the same territory as Zewditu rather than occupying a far off region in the empire. In Ethiopian history, two monarchs, even with one being the vassal and the other the Emperor (in this case Empress), had never occupied the same location as their seat. Conservatives, including Balcha Safo, agitated to redress this perceived insult to the Empress and to the dignity of the crown. This state of agitation ultimately led to Ras Gugsa's rebellion in 1930.  Gugsa saw Zewditu remaining as Empress and himself as the future Emperor. However, Empress Zewditu did not authorize or openly support his rebellious actions.

In January, Gugsa raised an army in Begemder. On March 28, Gugsa marched from his governorate at Gondar towards the capital. But, on March 31, he was met near the border by the Army of the Center (Mahel Sefari) and he was defeated and killed at the Battle of Anchem. News of Gugsa Wale's defeat and death had hardly spread through Addis Ababa when the Empress died suddenly on April 2. Although it was long rumored that the Empress was poisoned upon the defeat of her husband, or alternately that she died from shock upon hearing of the death of her estranged yet beloved husband, it has since been documented that the Empress succumbed to a flu-like fever (possibly typhoid) and complications from diabetes.

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In early 1930, Gugsa Welle, the husband of the empress Zewditu and the Shum (Governor) of Begemder Province, raised an army and marched it from his governorate at Gondar towards Addis Adaba. On March 31, 1930, Gugsa Welle was met by forces loyal to Negus Tafari (the future Haile Selassie) and was defeated at the Battle of Anchem.  Gugsa Welle was killed in action. News of Gugsa Welle's defeat and death had hardly spread through Addis Ababa when the empress died suddenly on April 2, 1930. Although it was long rumored that the empress was poisoned upon the defeat of her husband, or alternately that she died from shock upon hearing of the death of her estranged yet beloved husband, it has since been documented that the Empress succumbed to a flu-like fever and complications from diabetes. 

With the passing of Zewditu, Tafari himself rose to emperor and was proclaimed Neguse Negest ze-'Ityopp'ya, "King of Kings of Ethiopia". He was crowned on November 2, 1930, at Addis Adaba's Cathedral of Saint George.  The coronation was attended by royals and dignitaries from all over the world. Among those in attendance were George V's son the Duke of Gloucester, Marshal Franchet d'Esperey of France, and the Prince of Udine representing the King of Italy. Emissaries from the United States, Egypt, Turkey, Sweden, Belgium, and Japan were also present. British author Evelyn Waugh was also present, penning a contemporary report on the event, and American travel lecturer Burton Holmes shot the only known film footage of the event. One newspaper report suggested that the celebration may have incurred a cost in excess of $3,000,000. Many of those in attendance received lavish gifts. In one instance, the Christian emperor even sent a gold-encased Bible to an American bishop who had not attended the coronation, but who had dedicated a prayer to the emperor on the day of the coronation.

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(See also Appendix 4: Ethiopian Imperial and Royal Titles.)