1930
October
October 2
*Ivy Dumont, the first woman to serve as Governor-General of the Bahamas, was born at Roses on Long Island in the Bahamas.
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October 3
*A revolution broke out in Brazil against the rule of President Washington Luis.
***
*Austin Amissah, a Ghanaian lawyer, judge and academic who became a judge of the Court of Appeal in Botswana, was born in Accra, Ghana.
Austin Neeabeohe Evans Amissah (b. October 3, 1930, Accra, Ghana – d. January 20, 2001, London, England) studied at Jesus College, Oxford and was called to the bar as a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1955. He was Director of Public Prosecutions for Ghana from 1962 to 1966, then became a judge of the Court of Appeal from 1966 to 1976; he was seconded from this position to become a professor and Dean of the Law Faculty at the University of Ghana from 1969 to 1974 and chairman of the Ghana Law Reform Commission from 1969 to 1975. He was appointed Attorney General and Minister of Justice in 1979, and later became a judge of the Court of Appeal in Botswana from 1981 to 2001, including a period as President of the Court of Appeal. His writings included Criminal Procedure in Ghana, The Contribution of Courts to Government: a West African view (1981) and Arbitration in Africa (1996).
An eminent jurist, academic and author, Justice Amissah's career spanned Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and Europe. Born in Ghana in 1930, Justice Amissah became that country's Attorney General and served on Commissions and Enquiries across the Commonwealth. As President of Botswana's Court of Appeal, he made a landmark ruling in favor of Unity Dow's right to confer nationality on her children. He found that the Botswana constitution's guarantee of equal treatment of men and women overrode an immigration regulation stipulating that nationality rights could be conferred only by a man.
He died in London on January 20, 2001.
***
October 4
*The Cuban congress granted the request of President Gerardo Machado to suspend the constitution in and around Havana until after general elections on November 1.
{See also Appendix 19: Assault on Precinct 13.}
(See also Appendix 27: Faith Ringgold, Painter, Sculptor, Author, Performance Artist, and Civil Rights Activist.)
*Rufus Herve Bacote, a prominent physician in Kentucky and Tennessee who served as a First Lieutenant and an army doctor in the 370th Infantry Regiment of the 93rd Division during World War I, died in Earlington, Kentucky (October 13).
October 14
*Henry Creamer, the song lyricist best known for composing the lyrics for "Way Down Yonder in New Orleans", died in New York City, New York.
*Mobutu Sese Seko, a President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was born in Lisala, Belgian Congo.
Robertson remained in Louisiana after his marriage ended and became a recluse. He was largely scorned by his neighbors and was overcome by misogynistic rage towards his former wife and women in general. Robertson developed paranoid schizophrenia and claimed to have had his first vision, a futuristic vision of a spaceship with God as the driver, when he was fourteen. When his marriage ended he began to record his visions in his imagery and writings. Numerous hallucinatory visions of space travel where aliens predicted the End of Days through complex numerological formulas and warned him about the dangers of adultery and fornication led Robertson to believe that he was a victim of a global female conspiracy. He believed that his ex-wife's betrayal would be the cause of the cataclysmic destruction of humanity, and that his art was divinely sanctioned. Robertson saw himself as a patriarch in search of a new Zion and a prophet whose legacy would consist of his apocryphal work. Robertson identified himself as "Libra Patriarch Prophet Lord Archbishop Apostle Visionary Mystic Psychic Saint Royal Robertson".
Robertson worked on materials like poster board and paper or wood using magic markers, tempera paint, colored pencils, ballpoint pens, and glitter. He studied the Bible and there are many references to it in his work together with references to "girlie magazines", comic strips and science fiction. He was preoccupied with numerology and biblical prophecies of the End of Days from the Book of Revelation. Frequent themes included images of aliens and their spaceships, Bible verses and religious references, fire breathing, godzilla-like monsters, snakes, architectural drawings of houses and temples in futuristic cities, superheroes, and portraits of Adell often identified with Jezebel and other Amazon-like "harlots". His colorful drawings often included rambling, judgmental, ranting texts, sometimes in comic book-like speech balloons, about "adulterous whores" and unfaithful spouses. He frequently referenced precise and painful moments in his life, particularly his wife's unfaithfulness to him, and produced calendars chronicling memories of his marriage in short journal notations scribbled in each date's block. Much of his work included images that conveyed a sense of the artist pitted against the forces of evil. His works were often double-sided and when he signed pieces, he would add "Prophet" to the front of his name, or alternatively "Patriarch".
Robertson's home and yard were decorated with hundreds of his signs, drawings, calendars, and shrines. The exterior was decorated with a variety of painted and rotating signs including warnings that "whores" and "bastards" should stay away and misogynistic messages denouncing "bad" women often addressed to his ex-wife Adell. The interior was decorated with his drawings pinned to every available wall. Many drawings inside his home were of his ex-wife and the interior included a number of shrines dedicated to her. According to Allamel, Robertson developed a "complicated spatial ritualization" before he would allow visitors into his "sacred/profane inner space". His home was destroyed by Hurricane Andrew in August 1992. Two collectors helped him file papers with the federal government to recover from his losses.
Robertson's work has been featured in many exhibitions and a number of works are held in permanent collections including the Smithsonian American Art Museum; the Minneapolis Institute of Art; the Mississippi Museum of Art; the Hilliard University Art Museum in Lafayette, Louisiana; the Brogan Museum, the American Visionary Art Museum and the Art Museum of Southeast Texas.
Robertson died suddenly from a heart attack on July 5, 1997, in Louisiana.
Lew Leslie (b. Lewis Lessinsky; April 15, 1888 – d. March 10, 1963) was an American writer and producer of Broadway shows. Leslie got his start in show business in vaudeville in his early twenties. Although white, he was the first major impresario to present African American artists on the Broadway stage. He had two well-known wives, torch singer Belle Baker and Ziegfeld Follies showgirl Irene Wales.
Lew Leslie became famous for his stage shows at the Cotton Club and later for his Blackbirds revues, which he mounted in 1926, 1928, 1930, 1933 and 1939. Blackbirds of 1928 starring Adelaide Hall, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Tim Moore and Aida Ward, was his most successful revue and ran for over one year on Broadway, where it became the hit of the season. The sell-out show transferred to the Moulin Rouge in Paris, France, where it ran for three months before returning to the United States. Upon returning to the United States, the revue commenced an American road tour. Adelaide Hall starred in the show for just over two years.
The Blackbirds revues helped advance the career of several famous African American artists, including Florence Mills, Adelaide Hall, Tim Moore, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Edith Wilson and Lottie Gee.
Leslie began his career doing an act in vaudeville. He worked on stage first as an impressionist then in a double act with Belle Baker to whom he was married for a while. Becoming an agent, he listed among his clients Ben Bernie, Frank Fay and Bea Palmer. One of the earliest floor shows Leslie produced was named Aphrodite, which he presented in a Manhattan nightclub in 1922. The show featured a relatively unknown Sally Rand, whose real name was Helen Gould Beck. Ms. Rand later went on to make a fortune by creating her fan dance burlesque routine.
Leslie next put on a revue starring Belle Baker and Bea Palmer at the Café de Paris, which later became the Plantation Club where Leslie staged the Plantation Revue, the second edition of which, in 1922, starred Florence Mills and her husband, dancer Ulysses "Slow Kid" Thompson, Leslie also staged Dixie To Broadway (1924), again starring Mills and Thompson, and then came his Blackbirds revues, which began in London in 1926 with a show also starring Mills. At first, these revues were only moderately successful but they paved the way for the sensational hit, Blackbirds of 1928.
In January 1928, Blackbirds opened at Les Ambassadeurs Club in New York under the heading Lew Leslie's Blackbird Revue, starring Adelaide Hall. On May 9, 1928, the show transferred to the Liberty Theatre, Broadway and was re-titled Blackbirds of 1928. Along with Adelaide Hall, the show also starred Aida Ward and Bill "Bojangles" Robinson. The show ran until August the following year (1929), playing a total of 518 performances.
The songs for Blackbirds of 1928 were composed by Jimmy McHugh and Dorothy Fields, both of whom worked on revues at the Cotton Club. For Blackbirds of 1928, they wrote "Baby!", "Dixie" and "Here Comes My Blackbird", and while these had little life outside the show the same cannot be said for others that became popular: "Diga Diga Doo", "Doin’ The New Low-Down", "I Must Have That Man" and what became a perennial favorite, "I Can't Give You Anything but Love, Baby".
Leslie’s shows that followed included several editions of Blackbirds, the most successful of which were produced for more receptive audiences in Great Britain, from 1934-37. Ethel Waters appeared in the 1930 edition in New York, while the 1934 show had Biil "Bojangles" Robinson, and the 1936 show, which also ran in London, featured an appearance by the Nicholas Brothers. The last of the series, Blackbirds of 1939, produced in New York, included in its cast Lena Horne, whom Leslie called "the New Florence Mills". Interspersed amidst these revues were other Leslie ventures, including The International Revue (1930) and Rhapsody In Black (1931). Although not among the leading Broadway moguls of the '20s, Leslie helped make an important contribution to the integration of the Broadway musical.
*****
*Brazil's three-week civil war ended in rebel victory as President Washington Luis resigned.
Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa (b. October 26, 1869 – d. August 4, 1957) was a Brazilian politician who served as the 13th President of Brazil. Elected governor of Sao Paulo state in 1920 and president of Brazil in 1926, Washington Luís belonged to the Republican Party of Sao Paulo (PRP) and served as the last president of the First Brazilian Republic.
Facing the crisis generated by the Great Depression in the United States, the President lost almost all his support. He selected his friend Julio Prestes as his successor in 1930, but just three weeks before the end of his term, Luís was overthrown in a coup d'etat during the Brazilian Revolution of 1930 and was succeeded as president by the short-lived Brazilian Military Junta in the last few months of 1930.
His family was of Portuguese Romani descent. He was born in Macaé, Rio de Janeiro, and moved to São Paulo, where he was educated and graduated from the University of Sao Paulo Law School in 1891. He was appointed prosecutor in Barra Mansa, Rio de Janeiro in 1892, but resigned to devote himself to law in Batatais, Sao Paulo, where he began his political career. Luís was an alderman in Batatais with Federal Republican Party (Partido Republicano Federal; PRF) and became President of the Municipal Chamber in 1897.
Luís was mayor of Batatais from 1898 to 1899. He was elected congressman from the Farmer's Party (Partido da Lavoura) in 1900. Luís was a state representative for the Paulista Republican Party (Partido Republicano Paulista; PRP) between 1904 and 1906, participating in the Constituent Assembly of Sao Paulo, which revised the Constitution of the State in 1905. He resigned as representative to take the office of Secretary of State of Justice and Public Safety from 1906 to 1912.
Luis was the leader of the situationists and again became a state representative for the Paulista Republican Party from 1912 to 1913. He interrupted his mandate to become mayor of Sao Paulo (1914–1919), when he faced the general strike of 1917. He was governor of the state of Sao Paulo from 1920 to 1924. In 1924, Luís led the 3rd Battalion organized in Batatais to fight the rebels of São Paulo, which in 1925 became the Miguel Costa-Prestes Column. From 1925 to 1926, Luís served as a senator for the PRP.
Through direct election, Luís went on to hold the Presidency of the Republic on November 15, 1926. He was deposed by the Revolution of 1930 on October 24 and went into exile in Europe and the United States, returning to Brazil after seventeen years in 1947. After returning from exile, he moved to Sao Paulo and devoted himself to historical studies. He was a worthy member of the philanthropic hospital Santa Casa de Sao Paulo; honorary president of the Brazilian Red Cross; a member of the Institutes of History and Geography of Sao Paulo, Bahia and Ceara; member of the Academia Paulista de Letras; and member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute. The Rodovia Washington Luis in the state of Sao Paulo is named in his honor.
Throughout the 1920s, the Old Republic suffered a deep wear due to demonstrations of opposition from the urban middle class, the lieutenants' and workers' movements and dissident oligarchies. Early in his administration, the Prestes Column, a social rebel movement, came to an end, when 620 men went into exile in Bolivian territory, and the movement subsequently dissolved. The government of Washington Luís was no longer threatened by the lieutenants' rebellions. As for the advancement of the labor movement, however, to restrain new opposition movements he created the Celerada Act in 1927, which imposed press censorship and restricted the right of assembly, leading to the undergrounding of the Brazilian Communist Party, which had been recognized by the government earlier that year.
The global economic crisis of 1929, triggered with the stock market crash on October 24, 1929, was the largest in the history of capitalism, reaching many countries and paralyzing economic activities. Its effects in Brazil overthrew the valuation policy of coffee pursuant to provisions set forth in 1906 with the signing of the Taubate Agreement. Coffee, which accounted for 70% of Brazilian exports, had its price reduced in the international market. The crisis threatened the stability of the government of Washington Luís, who did not allow the new currency devaluation, pleaded by farmers before the disaster on the New York Stock Exchange.
Under the system of coffee and milk politicsthat prevailed for most of the Old Republic {see Appendix 10}, a man from Minas Gerais should have succeeded Washington Luís as president. However, Washington Luís supported another paulista, his friend Julio Prestes, for president in 1930.
Prestes' victory in the presidential elections of March 1, 1930, was questioned on suspicion of fraud. The assassination of Joao Pessoa, governor of Paraiba and candidate for vice president on the slate of Getulio Vargas on July 26, 1930, was a decisive factor for the worsening of movements opposed to the government of Washington Luís, already strained by the coffee crisis. The assassination, later proved, did not have any political purposes. Reassuming the government of Rio Grande do Sul, Vargas and other politicians such as Osvaldo Aranha began the political conspiracy that led to the movement of October 3, 1930, the Revolution of 1930, as the episode became known. President Washington Luís was deposed on October 24 by the heads of the armed forces, and a provisional government junta took power, composed of generals Tasso Fragoso and Mena Barreto and by admiral Isaias de Noronha.
Luís died in Sao Paulo on August 4, 1957.
*****
Emmanuel Noi Omaboe, (aka Oyeeman Wereko Ampem II, b. October 29, 1930, Amanokrom, Ghana – d. November 26, 2005), a Ghanaian traditional ruler, public servant and economist, was born in Amanokrom, in the Akuapim North District of Ghana. He was Gyaasehene of Akuapem and Omanhene of Amanokrom from 1975 till his death in 2005. He became Commissioner of Economic Affairs of Ghana, from 1967 to 1969. He served as the Ghanaian Government Statistician from 1960 to 1966 in Nkrumah's Government.
Omaboe was born on October 29, 1930 at Amanokrom in the Akuapim North District. His parents were Peter Nortey Omaboe of Osu and Mary Opeibea Awuku of Amanokrom. Omaboe attended the Mamfe Presbyterian School and Suhum Presbyterian Middle School for his elementary education. He was educated at the Accra Academy from 1946 to 1950. He entered the University College of the Gold Coast (at Achimota) in 1951, to read for a degree in economics. In 1954, he was awarded a Ghana Government scholarship, to complete his economics degree in statistics at the London School of Economics, graduating with first class honors. He had a year at a postgraduate master's studentship in statistics at London School of Economics before returning to Ghana.
In 1957, he joined the University College of Ghana as an economics research fellow and gave lectures in Statistics. In 1959, he was appointed the deputy government statistician and promoted to Government Statistician in July 1960 due to the Africanization policy of the civil service by Kwame Nkrumah. Omaboe was the first Ghanaian to hold this position, and at the age of 29, became the youngest head of a government department. Omaboe was census coordinator for the 1960 Population Census which was the first scientifically conducted population census in Ghana. In October 1960, when the State Planning Commission was constituted by Kwame Nkrumah, Omaboe was chairman with Joseph Henry Mensah as secretary. The State Planning Commission brought about and worked on the Seven-Year Development Plan (1963–1970), which was formally launched in 1964.
After the 1966 coup d'état, Omaboe took up the post of chairman of the Economic Committee of the National Liberation Council and subsequently Commissioner for Economic Affairs. In this role, he defined the Government's policies toward liberalization, including devaluation of the Cedi, abolition of import licensing and privatization of loss-making state enterprises. Omaboe served as a member of the Advisory Committee on Post Adjustment Questions of the United Nations International Civil Service Commission starting in 1967 and ending in 1985.
In 1969, Omaboe retired from public service after 10 years' service and set up an investment and economic consultancy, E.N. Omaboe & Associates Limited, of which he served as chairman. In December of that year, he was named to join the Ghana Board of the Barclays Bank D. C. O. But the next year, Omaboe spent time on a one-year fellowship at the Harvard Center for International Affairs. From Harvard, he returned to Ghana and worked at his consultancy whose area of business was new in Ghana in the 1970s and also joined the boards of Barclays Bank of Ghana and UTC Estates.
In 1974, Omaboe partnered with Jake Obetsebi-Lampley and Peter Hasford in the purchase of the advertising firm, Lintas West Africa and Afromedia Ghana from Unilever. He became chairman of Lintas W.A, immediately after the purchase and was chairman until 2005.
In 1980, Omaboe joined the UN Investment Committee which guides the investments of the United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund. In 1997, he became chairman of the investment committee, staying as chairman for the next eight years and made a member emeritus at the end of his service in 2005.
Omaboe served as chairman of Reiss & Co. (Ghana) Ltd., a technical trading house with divisions in agriculture, veterinary, information technology and industrial safety supplies.
In 1989, he was a member of a ten-person committee that did work for the establishment of the Ghana Stock Exchange.
In 1991, he had a change in role on the Barclays Bank Ghana board from director to chairman of the bank. He had served as a director since 1971 when the bank was incorporated and was one of its first four named directors. He retired from the bank's board in 2005 after 34 years service on the board as a director of the bank.
In 1995, together with Kwame Pianim, he co-founded New World Investments, an investment and asset management firm, and was chairman on its founding until his death.
Omaboe served as chief patron of the Prison Christian Fellowship of Ghana from 1982 and chairman of the Ghana Social Marketing Foundation from 1993.
Omaboe was chairman of the governing council of the University of Ghana Medical School from 1984 to 1999, succeeding Harry Sawyerr, the first chairman. In 1999, he was nominated chancellor of the University of Ghana. He was the first Ghanaian other than a head-of-state to be nominated as chancellor of the university.
In 2004, he procured a rare collection of Ashanti Gold weights from a vendor in Germany and donated the collection to the Institute of African Studies of the University of Ghana as a private deed of gift to promote cultural education within the university.
He was installed "Ohene" (Chief) of Amanokrom and "Gyasehene" of Akuapem in 1975. During his time as traditional ruler, he undertook the projects of the construction of the Manko Aba Ahenfie and the Amanokrom Community Centre. The annual Odwira experienced large turn up of indigenous people living elsewhere and foreigners from abroad due to his image.
Omaboe was a member of the Achimota Golf Club. From 1974 to 1975, he captained the Achimota Golf Club and served as president of the club from 1990 to 1998.
In 1971, Omaboe was chairman of the interim management committee of Accra Hearts of Oak football club. In 1989, he was chosen to be Chief Patron and President of the Council of Patrons of Accra Hearts of Oak S. C. Under his presidency of the Council of Patrons of the football club, a total of 42 competitive and ceremonial cups was won and a record was set by winning the Ghana Premier League six (6) consecutive times in 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002. The club for the first time won the CAF Champions League trophy in 2000 and set another Ghanaian record by winning the 8th CAF Super Cup (2001) and crowned this achievement by being the first Club in Africa to win the 1st CAF Confederation Cup in 2004.
He received the Grand Medal (Civil Division) of the Republic of Ghana in 1968, the highest honor of his country then available in that period. In 1973, Omaboe was elected Honorary Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society, having been a member since 1957. He was made President of the Economic Society of Ghana. He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Ghana, Legon in 1999.
Omaboe was married to Letitia Omaboe with whom he had five children. His son, Nortey Omaboe became the Chief Executive of GCNet. His daughter, Norkor Duah became the Chief Executive of the marketing communications firm, Mullen Lowe Accra and previously served as the Vice President of International Advertising Association.
Omaboe was a Presbyterian and was known to worship at the Ebenezer Presbyterian Church, Osu. He was also a Freemason, belonging to the District Grand Lodge of Ghana under the United Grand Lodge of England.
Omaboe died of natural causes on November 26, 2005. A memorial service was held for him at the Ebenezer Presbyterian Church, Osu. The royal funeral and burial took place at Amanokrom.
From 1952–1953, Portuondo sang for the Orquesta Anacaona, and later, in 1953, both sisters joined (together with Elena Burke and Moraima Secada) the singing group Cuarteto d'Aida, formed and directed by pianist Aida Diestro. The group had considerable success, touring the United States, performing with Nat King Cole at the Tropicana, and recording a 1957 album for RCA Victor. In 1958, pianist and composer Julio Gutierrez invited Portuondo to sing for his ensemble in a series of recordings bridging jazz and Cuban music for the record label Velvet. The result was Magia Negra, her debut solo album. Haydee left the Cuarteto d'Aida in 1961 in order to live in the United States. However, Omara continued singing with the quartet until 1967.
In 1967, Portuondo began to focus on her solo career, recording two albums for Areito, Omara Portuondo and Esta es Omara Portuondo. In the same year, she represented Cuba at the Sopot Festival in Poland, singing Juanito Márquez's "Como un milagro". Alongside her solo work, in the 1970s, she sang with the charanga Orquesta Aragon, and toured with them abroad.
In 1974, Portuondo recorded with guitarist Martín Rojas, an album in which she lauds Salvador Allende and the people of Chile a year after the military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet. Among other hits from the album, she sang Carlos Puebla's hit "Hasta Siempre, Comandante", which refers to Che Guevara. She also recorded "Y que se sepa", with one of the most successful Cuban bands of the late 20th century, Los Van Van. Later on she performed with Juan Formell, singing Formell's song "Tal vez", a song she recorded later on with Maria Bethania. During the 1970s and 1980s, Portuondo enjoyed success at home and abroad, with tours, albums (including one of her most lauded recordings in 1984 with Adalberto Alvarez), film roles, and her own television series.
In 2004, in Montreal, Canada, the International Red Cross appointed Portuondo an International Ambassador, the first Cuban musician to hold this title. In 2007, she performed the title role to sold-out audiences in Lizt Alfonso's dance musical "Vida", the story of modern Cuba through the eyes and with the memories of an old woman. In this same year, her performance at the Montreal Jazz Festival was released on DVD. She recorded in 2008 a duet album with Brazilian singer Maria Bethania named Maria Bethania e Omara Portuondo. In 2008, she recorded the album Gracias as a tribute to the 60th anniversary of her singing career.
Portuondo sang (duetting with Ibrahim Ferrer) on the album Buena Vista Social Club in 1996. This led not only to more touring (including playing at Carnegie Hall with the Buena Vista troupe) and her appearance in Wim Wenders' film Buena Vista Social Club, but also to two further albums for the World Circuit label: Buena Vista Social Club Presents Omara Portuondo (2000) and Flor de Amor (2004).
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October 30
*Little Sonny Warner, an American blues singer, was born in Falls Church, Virginia.
Little Sonny Warner (b. October 30, 1930, Falls Church, Virginia – d. April 12, 2007, Falls Church, Virginia) was an American blues singer.
Born Haywood S. Warner, Warner was born on October 30,1930 in Falls Church, Virginia. In the early 1950s, Warner sang as a backing vocalist for Van Walls on the Atlantic Records releases "After Midnight" and "Open the Door". His career received a boost in 1957, when he filled in for Lloyd Price at the Apollo Theatre in Harlem.
Warner's biggest hit was saxophonist Big Jay McNeely's "There's Something On Your Mind", which became a gold record for Checker Records in 1959. He performed with James Brown, Etta James and B. B. King. In his later years, Warner often performed at concerts and festivals in Falls Church.
Little Sonny Warner died in his hometown of Falls Church, Virginia, on April 12, 2007.
*****
October 31
*Audrey Smedley, an African American social anthropologist who wrote about the evolution of the idea of human races, was born in Detroit, Michigan.
Audrey Smedley (b. October 31, 1930, Detroit, Michigan – d. October 14, 2020, Beltsville, Maryland) was an American social anthropologist and professor emeritus at Virginia Commonwealth University in anthropology and African American studies.
Smedley received her BA and MA in history and anthropology from the University of Michigan, and a PhD in social anthropology from the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom, based on field research in northern Nigeria. She taught undergraduate and graduate-level courses in social anthropology, African societies and cultures, the history of anthropology, and anthropological theory.
Smedley wrote on the history of anthropology and the origin and evolution of the idea of human races. Her research interests also included comparative slavery, human ecological adaptation, and the roles of women in patrilineal societies.
Smedley is best known for her scholarship on the history of the concept of "race" - an idea that emerged in the Americas, she argued, to justify chattel enslavement of Africans and the genocide of indigenous people. Her book, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, was recipient in 1993 of the Outstanding Book Award from the Gustavus Myer Center for the Study of Human Rights in North America.
*****
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