1930 - General Historical Events: Oct-Dec

October

 *The Indochinese Communist Party was formed. 

*A revolution in Brazil was led by Getulio Dornelles Vargas, the Provincial Governor of Rio Grande do Sul.

October 1

*Richard Harris, an Irish actor and singer best known for his role as Dumbledore in the first two Harry Potter films and for his recording of "MacArthur Park", was born in Limerick, Ireland. 

Richard St John Harris (b. October 1, 1930, Limerick, Ireland – d. October 25, 2002, London, England) appeared on stage and in many films, appearing as Frank Machin in This Sporting Life,  for which he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor, King in the 1967 film Camelot and the subsequent 1981 revival of the show. He played an aristocrat and prisoner in A Man Called Horse (1970), a gunfighter in Clint Eastwood's Western film Unforgiven (1992), Emperor Marcus Aurelius in Gladiator (2000), and Albus Dumbledore in the first two Harry Potter films: The Philosopher's Stone (2001) and The Chamber of Secrets (2002). Harris had a number one hit in Australia and Canada and a top ten hit in the United Kingdom and United States with his 1968 recording of  Jimmy Webb's song "MacArthur Park". 

October 3

*The German Socialist Labor Party in Poland - Left was founded following a split in DSAP in Lodz. 

October 5

 *British airship R101 crashed in France en route to India on its maiden long-range flight resulting in the loss of 48 lives.

October 13

*Nazi deputies showed up in uniform violating the rules and creating an uproar.

October 14

*Dick Harter, an American basketball coach who served as a mentor to African American basketball coaches such as Stu Jackson and Ernie Kent, was born in Pottstown, Pennsylvania (October 14). 

Richard Alvin Harter (b. October 14, 1930, Pottstown, Pennsylvania – d. March 12, 2012, Hilton Head Island, South Carolina) was an American basketball coach who served as both a head and assistant coach in both the NBA and the NCAA. 

Born in Pottstown, Pennsylvania, Harter attended the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, where he played basketball for the Quakers and graduated in 1953. He served two years as an officer in the United States Marine Corps, and then was an assistant freshman coach back at Penn for a year. He then coached at Germantown Academy for three years, then back to Penn in 1959 as an assistant coach.

Harter left Penn in 1965 to become head coach at Rider University, then returned to Penn as its head coach. After success at Penn, with just one regular season defeat in his final two seasons, Harter was hired in April 1971 at the University of Oregon in Eugene. He succeeded Steve Belko, who stepped down after fifteen years and consecutive 17–9 seasons to become assistant athletic director.

Harter was regarded as one of the top defensive coaches in the 1970s, where his "Kamikaze Kids" at Oregon in the Pac-8 were known for a swarming defense. Many basketball notables came from Harter's Duck program, including notable African Americans Stu Jackson and former Oregon head coach Ernie Kent. After seven seasons in Eugene, Harter left Oregon in 1978, at a salary of $38,000 annually, for Penn State and $41,000, where he stayed for five seasons.

Harter's first job in the NBA was as an assistant coach with the Detroit Pistons in the 1982-83 season.  He left in 1986 to become an assistant for the Indiana Pacers. In 1988, he was hired into his first head coaching position, with the expansion Charlotte Hornets.  He was the franchise's first ever head coach. In the team's second season Harter was fired in 1990 during mid-season when the Hornets' record was 8–32. Harter went on to be an assistant coach for the New York Knicks under Pat Riley (1991-1994), Portland Trail Blazers under P. J Carlesimo (1994-1997), Indiana Pacers under Larry Bird (1997-2000), and Boston Celtics under Jim O'Brien.  Harter joined the Philadelphia 76ers' coaching staff on May 5, 2004. On June 13, 2007, Harter joined the Indiana Pacers for the third time, as an assistant coach under O'Brien.

Harter died on March 12, 2012, at the age of 81.

October 16

*Robert Humphreys, an American sociologist and author who was noted for his research into sexual encounters between men in public toilets published as Tearoom Trade, was born in Chickasha, Oklahoma.

Robert Allen "Laud" Humphreys (b, October 16, 1930, Chickasha, Oklahoma – d. August 23, 1988) was born in Chickasha, Oklahoma, to Ira Denver Humphreys and Stella Bernice Humphreys. "Laud" was chosen as his first name when he was baptized again upon entering the Episcopal Church. He graduated from the Seabury-Western Episcopal Theological Seminary in 1955, and served as an Episcopal priest. He earned his doctorate degree from Washington University in St. Louis in 1968. Due to the perceived dishonesty of his research methods, there was a failed attempt by some faculty members at Washington University to rescind his PhD. He served as professor of sociology at Pitzer College in Claremont, California from 1972–1988 and died of lung cancer in 1988.

Humphreys was married to a woman from 1960 to 1980 but eventually came out as a gay man.  Humphreys was a founder of the Sociologists' Gay Caucus, established in 1974.

Humphreys' biography was published in 2004, under the title Laud Humphreys: Prophet of Homosexuality and Sociology.

Humphreys is best known for his published Ph.D. dissertation, Tearoom Trade (1970), an ethnographic study of anonymous male-male sexual encounters in public toilets (a practice known as "tea-rooming" in United States gay slang and "cottaging" in British English). Humphreys asserted that the men participating in such activity came from diverse social backgrounds, had differing personal motives for seeking homosexual contact in such venues, and variously self-perceived as "straight," "bisexual," or "gay."

Because Humphreys was able to confirm that over fifty percent (50%) of his subjects were outwardly heterosexual men with unsuspecting wives at home, a primary thesis of Tearoom Trade is the incongruence between the private self and the social self for many of the men engaging in this form of homosexual activity. Specifically, they put on a "breastplate of righteousness" (social and political conservatism) in an effort to conceal their deviant behavior and prevent being exposed as deviants. Humphreys tapped into a theme of incongruence between one's words and deeds that has become a primary methodological and theoretical concern in sociology throughout the 20th and 21st centuries.

Humphreys' study has been criticized by sociologists on ethical grounds in that he observed acts of homosexuality by masquerading as a voyeur, did not get his subjects’ consent, tracked down names and addresses through license plate numbers and interviewed the men in their homes in disguise and under false pretenses.

Nevertheless, Humphreys was enormously influential on graduate students and younger scholars in the field of deviance and ethnography.  Humphreys' research materials, including detailed diagrams and maps of tearoom activity he observed, are housed in the collections at ONE National Gay & Lesbian Archives. 

October 20

 *A British White Paper demanded restrictions on Jewish immigration into Mandatory Palestine.

The Passfield Paper on Palestine suggested that a halt in Jewish immigration to Palestine was warranted so long as unemployment persisted among the Arabs.  Sidney James Webb, the first baron of Passfield, was the British secretary for colonies.

October 24

 *The Brazilian Revolution of 1930 occurred.  Getulio Vargas established a dictatorship. 

*Eugenio German, a Brazilian chess master, was born in Uba, Brazil. 

In 1951, Eugênio Maciel German (b. October 24, 1930, Uba, Brazil – d. April 1, 2001, Belo Horizonte, Brazil) won the Brazilian Chess Championship in Fortaleza. 

Eugenio German played for Brazil in three Chess Olympiads: 

• In 1952, at first board in the 10th Chess Olympiad in Helsinki 
• In 1968, at second board in the 18th Chess Olympiad in Lugano
• In 1972, at first board in the 20th Chess Olympiad in Skopje

German was awarded the International Master (IM) title in 1952.  German was the first Brazilian to be made an IM by the Fédération Internationale des Échecs or World Chess Federation.

October 26

*Getulio Vargas accepted the Presidency of Brazil and would serve as President of Brazil until 1945.

October 27

 *Ratifications were exchanged in London on the first London Naval Treaty signed in April modifying the Washington Naval Treaty of 1925. Its arms limitation provisions went into effect immediately, hence putting more limits on the expensive naval arms race between its five signatories (the United Kingdom, the United States, the Japanese Empire, France, and Italy).

October 30

*Washington Luis Pereira de Souza, the former President of Brazil, was forced to resign. 

*Bob Adelman, an American photographer known for his images of the Civil Rights movement, was born (October 30).

Robert Melvin "Bob" Adelman (b. October 30, 1930 – d. March 19, 2016) was r

aised on Long Island, New York.  He earned his bachelor of arts degree at Rutgers University and a master of arts degree in philosophy from Columbia University.

Adelman used his background as a graduate student in Applied Aesthetics from Columbia University to forge close ties with leading figures of art and literature, including Andy Warhol and Samuel Beckett. After studying photography for several years under the tutelage of Harper's Bazaar art director Alexey Brodovitch, Adelman volunteered as a photographer for the Congress of Racial Equality in the early 1960s, a position which granted him access to key leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, including Malcolm X. Martin Luther King, Jr., and James Baldwin. Adelman's work captured a decade of racial strife during the 1960s, including portraits of Martin Luther King reciting his "I Have a Dream" speech, the 50 mile March from Selma to Montgomery, and King resting in his casket after the assassination. His photos, some of which are archived at the Library of Congress, captured segregation and civil unrest in the South. In 2007, he published his book Mine Eyes Have Seen: Bearing Witness to the Struggle for Civil Rights.

Westwood Gallery in New York City presented the premiere gallery exhibition for Bob Adelman's civil rights photographs in 2008, curated by James Cavello. During the exhibition the gallery held an event on April 4, 2008 marking the 40th anniversary of the death of Martin Luther King, Jr.  The actress and civil rights advocate Ruby Dee read from Dr. King’s "Beyond Vietnam" speech.  The gallery also exhibited and represented Adelman’s photographs of New York artists, including Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Tom Wesselmann, James Rosenquist, Robert Indiana, Adolph Gottlieb,  Andy Warhol, other artists and social photographic essays.

Adelman died March 19, 2016, in Miami Beach, Florida, at the age of 85.

On March 20, 2017, the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division officially acquired the Bob Adelman photographic archives which included the full spectrum of his work from his famed Civil Rights captures to his less celebrated pornographic bondage images. The archive includes approximately 50,000 prints and 525,000 image negatives and slides.

November

November 1

*Getulio Vargas dissolved the Brazilian Congress.  He would rule as Dictator.

November 2

 *Haile Selassie was crowned emperor of Ethiopia. 

Ras Tafari, who took the name Haile Selassie when he was proclaimed Negus (King) in June 1928, was crowned King of Kings at Addis Adaba.  He would reign until 1974 and be regarded by Jamaican Rastafarians as the living God.  He was seen as fulfilling a prophecy of Marcus Garvey, "Look to Africa, where a black king shall be crowned, for the day of deliverance is near."

November 3

 *Getulio Vargas became president of Brazil.

November 5

*Nationalist troops launched an encirclement campaign in parts of Hunan, Hubei, and Jianzi provinces.

November 11

*Hugh Everett, an American physicist who first proposed the many-worlds interpretation of quantum physics, was born in Washington, D. C.

Hugh Everett III (b. November 11, 1930, Washington, D. C.  – d. July 19, 1982, McLean, Virginia) was born and raised in the Washington, D. C. area. Everett's parents separated when he was young. Initially raised by his mother (Katherine Lucille Everett née Kennedy), he later was raised by his father (Hugh Everett, Jr.) and stepmother (Sarah Everett née Thrift) from the age of seven.

Everett won a half scholarship to St. John's College, a private military high school in Washington, D. C.  From there he moved to the nearby Catholic University of America to study chemical engineering as an undergraduate. While there he read about Dianetics in Astounding Science Fiction. Although he never exhibited any interest in Scientology (as Dianetics became), he did retain a distrust of conventional medicine throughout his life.

During World War II,  his father was away fighting in Europe as a lieutenant colonel on the general staff. After World War II, Everett's father was stationed in West Germany, and Hugh joined him, during 1949, taking a year out from his undergraduate studies. Father and son were both keen photographers and took hundreds of pictures of West Germany being rebuilt. Reflecting the Everetts' technical interests, the pictures were almost devoid of people.

Everett graduated from The Catholic University of America in 1953 with a degree in chemical engineering, although he had completed sufficient courses for a mathematics degree as well. Everett then received a National Science Foundation fellowship that allowed him to attend Princeton University for graduate studies. He started his studies at Princeton in the Mathematics Department working on the then-new field of game theory under Albert W. Tucker,  but slowly drifted into physics. In 1953, he started taking his first physics courses, notably Introductory Quantum Mechanics with Robert Dicke.

During 1954, Everett attended Methods of Mathematical Physics with Eugene Wigner,  although he remained active with mathematics and presented a paper on military game theory in December.  Everett passed his general examinations in the spring of 1955, thereby gaining his master's degree, and then started work on his dissertation that would (much) later make him famous. He switched thesis advisors to John Archibald Wheeler some time in 1955, wrote a couple of short papers on quantum theory and completed his long paper, Wave Mechanics Without Probability in April 1956.

In his third year at Princeton, Everett moved into an apartment which he shared with three friends he had made during his first year, Hale Trotter, Harvey Arnold and Charles Misner. 

It was during this time that he met Nancy Gore, who typed up his Wave Mechanics Without Probability paper. Everett married Nancy Gore, the next year. The long paper was later retitled as The Theory of the Universal Wave Function.

Wheeler himself had traveled to Copenhagen in May, 1956 with the goal of getting a favorable reception for at least part of Everett's work, but in vain. In June 1956, Everett started defense work in the Pentagon's Weapons Systems Evaluation Group, returning briefly to Princeton to defend his thesis after some delay in the spring of 1957. A short article, which was a compromise between Everett and Wheeler about how to present the concept and almost identical to the final version of his thesis, was published in Reviews of Modern Physics, Volume 29, No. 3, pages 454-462, (July 1957), accompanied by an approving review by Wheeler. Everett was not happy with the final form of the article.

Upon graduation in September 1956, Everett was invited to join the Pentagon's newly-forming Weapons Systems Evaluation Group (WSEG), managed by the Institute for Defense Analyses.  Between October 23 to October 26, 1956, Everett attended a weapons orientation course managed by Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque, New Mexico to learn about nuclear weapons and became sa fan of computer modeling while there. In 1957, he became director of the WSEG's Department of Physical and Mathematical Sciences. After a brief intermission to defend his thesis on quantum theory at Princeton, Everett returned to WSEG and recommenced his research, much of which, but by no means all, remains classified. He worked on various studies of the Minuteman missile project, which was then starting, as well as the influential study The Distribution and Effects of Fallout in Large Nuclear Weapon Campaigns.

During March and April 1959, at Wheeler's request, Everett visited Copenhagen, on vacation with his wife and baby daughter, in order to meet with Niels Bohr, the "father of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics."  The visit was a complete disaster.  Everett was unable to communicate the main idea that the universe is describable, in theory, by an objectively existing universal wave function (which does not "collapse").  This was simply heresy to Bohr and the others at Copenhagen. The conceptual gulf between their positions was too wide to allow any meeting of minds.

Discouraged by the scorn of other physicists for MWI, Everett ended his physics career after completing his Ph.D. Afterwards, he developed the use of generalized Lagrange multipliers for operations research and applied this commercially as a defense analyst and a consultant. He was married to Nancy Everett née Gore. They had two children: Elizabeth Everett and Mark Oliver Everett, who became frontman of the musical band Eels.

However, whilst in Copenhagen, in his hotel, he started work on a new idea to use generalized Lagrange multipliers for mathematical optimization. Everett's theorem, published in 1963, relates the Lagrangian bi-dual to the primal problem.

In 1962, Everett accepted an invitation to present the relative-state formulation (as it was still called) at a conference on the foundations of quantum mechanics held at Xavier University in Cincinnati.  In his exposition, Everett presented his derivation of probability and also stated explicitly that observers in all branches of the wave function were equally "real." He also agreed with an observation from the floor that the number of branches of the universal wave function was an uncountable infinity.

In August 1964, Everett and several WSEG colleagues started Lambda Corporation to apply military modeling solutions to various civilian problems. During the early 1970s, defense budgets were curtailed and most money went to operational duties in the Vietnam War,  resulting in Lambda eventually being absorbed by the General Research Corp.

In 1973, Everett left Lambda to establish DBS Corporation in Arlington, Virginia, a computer consulting company. Much of their work seems to have concerned statistical analysis. He seems to have enjoyed programming, and spent the rest of his life working at DBS. He also established Monowave Corporation with several DBS and family friends.

In 1970, Bryce DeWitt wrote an article for Physics Today on Everett's relative-state theory, which evoked a number of letters from physicists. These letters, and DeWitt's responses to the technical objections raised, were also published. Meanwhile DeWitt, who had corresponded with Everett on the many-worlds / relative state interpretation when originally published in 1957, started editing an anthology on the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. In addition to the original articles by Everett and Wheeler, the anthology was dominated by the inclusion of Everett's 1956 paper The Theory of the Universal Wavefunction, which had never been published before. The book was published late in 1973, sold out completely, and it was not long before an article on Everett's work appeared in the science fiction magazine, Analog. 

In 1977, Everett was invited to give a talk at a conference Wheeler had organized at Wheeler's new location at the University of Texas at Austin.  As with the Copenhagen visit, Everett vacationed from his defense work and traveled with his family. Everett met DeWitt there for the first and only time. Everett's talk was quite well received and influenced a number of physicists in the audience, including Wheeler’s graduate student,  David Deutsch, who later promoted the many-worlds interpretation to a wider audience. Everett, who never wavered in his belief in his many-worlds theory, enjoyed the presentation.  It was the first time for years he had talked about his quantum work in public. Wheeler started the process of returning Everett to a physics career by establishing a new research institute in California, but nothing came of this proposal. Wheeler, although happy to introduce Everett's ideas to a wider audience, was not happy to have his own name associated with Everett's ideas. Eventually, after Everett's death he formally renounced the theory.

At the age of 51, Everett, who believed in quantum immortality, died suddenly of a heart attack at home in his bed on the night of July 18–19, 1982. Everett's obesity, frequent chain-smoking and alcohol drinking almost certainly contributed to this, although he seemed healthy at the time. A committed atheist, Everett had asked that his remains be disposed of in the trash after his death. His wife kept his ashes in an urn for a few years, before complying with his wishes. 

Everett's daughter, Elizabeth, committed suicide in 1996 (saying in her suicide note that she wished her ashes to be thrown out with the garbage so that she might "end up in the correct parallel universe to meet up w[ith] Daddy"), and in 1998, his wife, Nancy, died of cancer. Everett's son, Mark Oliver Everett, who found Everett dead, explored his father's work in the hour-long BBC television documentary Parallel Worlds, Parallel Lives.  The program was edited and shown on the Public Broadcasting Service's Nova series in the United States during October 2008.

November 5

*Clifford Irving, an American novelist and investigative reporter best known for is fraudulent "autobiography" of Howard Hughes was born in New York, New York.

Clifford Michael Irving (b. November 5, 1930, New York, New York – d. December 19, 2017, Sarasota, Florida) was an American novelist and investigative reporter. Although he published 20 novels, he is best known for an "autobiography" allegedly written as told to Irving by billionaire recluse Howard Hughes.  The fictional work was to have been published in 1972. After Hughes denounced him and sued the publisher, McGraw-Hill, Irving and his collaborators confessed to the hoax. He was sentenced to 2½ years in prison, of which he served 17 months.

Irving wrote The Hoax (1981), his account of events surrounding the development and sale of the fake autobiography. The book was adapted as a 2006 biopic of the same name, starring Richard Gere as Clifford Irving. He continued to write, and published his later books as e-books available via Kindle and Nook.

November 12

*Molly Blackburn, a South African anti-apartheid activist, was born in Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Molly Bellhouse Blackburn (b. November 12, 1930, Port Elizabeth, South Africa – d. December 28, 1985, between Oudshoorn and Port Elizabeth, South Africa) was born Molly Bellhouse in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, the daughter of Elgar Bellhouse (Buller) Pagden, a one-time chairperson of the Progressive Party (PP) of Port Elizabeth who instilled liberal and progressive ideals in his daughter.

Graduating from Rhodes University College with a bachelor of arts degree, Blackburn spent time teaching in London before settling in Belgium. Seven years later, however, she returned to Port Elizabeth. She joined the Black Sash, an activist group founded in 1955 by six women (Jean Sinclair, Elizabeth McLaren, Ruth Foley, Tertia Pybus, Jean Bosazza and Helen Newton-Thompson), but eventually left due to what she perceived as the Sash's "inactivity".

In 1981, Blackburn started her political career by winning the Provincial Council seat of Walmer, Port Elizabeth, for the Progressive Federal Party (PFP). Di Bishop, who would become a lifelong friend and fellow activist also won a council seat that year. Di Bishop had joined the Black Sash in 1978 and Blackburn returned to the order in 1982 with a lot of ideas of her own 

Blackburn rejoined the Black Sash to campaign for justice and the upliftment of black communities in South Africa. Blackburn and Bishop began investigating rent restructuring and controversial police shootings.  Blackburn got the reputation of being caring and understanding, and was soon being approached by black groups who sought her assistance. In 1983, she was asked by Matthew Goniwe to officially inquire about rent restructuring in the Lingelihle township near Cradock. She, together with Di Bishop, brought the problem to the attention of the councils, and they highlighted the changing situation and growing resentment of the people in these areas. Blackburn and Bishop also, with the support of PFP members in parliament, convinced the National Party government to inquire into the police shootings at Langa on March 21, 1985. This turned out to be one of the most important investigations since the investigation into the 1976 Soweto revolt.

Blackburn started to be seen as a troublemaker, not just by members of the National Party but also by some liberals. She started to receive death threats and was arrested a couple of times.

On December 28, 1985, while driving back to Port Elizabeth from Oudshoorn, Blackburn, her sister, Di Bishop and her husband, Brian Bishop, were all involved in an accident. Blackburn and Brian Bishop were killed. She was 55 years old and Brian Bishop was 51. 

At her funeral which was held at St John's Church in Port Elizabeth on January 1, 1986. As a sign of her close relationship with the black communities where she worked, a crowd of 20,000 mostly black South Africans gathered to mourn her loss. Blackburn received tributes from both local and international sources.She was survived by her husband and their seven children.

The Molly Blackburn High School was named in her honor in Kwanobuhle, as well as the Molly Blackburn Memorial Hall at the University of Cape Town. 

November 14

*Japan's Prime Minister Yuko Hamaguchi was shot be a right wing militant and would die in six months.  Hamaguchi had supported acceptance of the London Naval Conference treaty.  (See January 21 above.)

November 16

*James Groppi, a Roman Catholic priest and noted civil rights activist based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

James Edmund Groppi (b. November 16, 1930, Milwaukee, Wisconsin – d. November 4, 1985, Milwaukee, Wisconsin) was born in the Bay View neighborhood on the south side of Milwaukee, Wisconsin to Italian immigrant parents.  Giocondo and Giorgina Groppi had twelve children, of which James was the eleventh. In this working-class community, Giocondo joined others from Italy in Milwaukee's grocery business, opening "Groppi's" store in Bay View, where James and his siblings worked. Typical of boys in heavily Catholic south side Milwaukee, James attended a parochial grade school (Immaculate Conception), but went on to the public high school in Bay View, where he was captain of the basketball team in his senior year.

A year after graduation, James Groppi enrolled at Mount Calvary Seminary (1950–1952) in Mount Calvary, Wisconsin.  It was during his seminary years that Groppi began developing an empathy with the black poor. He worked summers at a youth center in Milwaukee's inner core. It was there that he saw the social suffering and ostracism that Negroes lived with every day. Groppi was ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood in June 1959 after studying at St. Francis Seminary (1952–1959). 

In his capacity as NAACP advisor, Groppi organized an all-Black male group called the Milwaukee Commandos. They were formed to protect marchers and help quell violence during the "Freedom Marches." With the NAACP Youth Council, Groppi mounted a lengthy, continuous demonstration against the city of Milwaukee on behalf of fair housing.  He led these fair housing marches across the 16th Street Viaduct (since renamed in his honor) spanning the Menomonee River Valley.  The half-mile wide valley was considered to be a symbolic divide for the city. Throughout this period, he received both physical and moral support from human rights activists like Dick Gregory and Martin Luther King, Jr.  Though Groppi was denigrated and arrested on numerous occasions for standing firm in his beliefs, he was instrumental in dramatizing the segregated housing situation in Milwaukee. These efforts led to enactment of an open-housing law in the city.

In 1966 Groppi acted on common knowledge in the Milwaukee area that most judges and elected officials belonged to the Fraternal Order of Eagles, which at the time did not admit people of color to its membership. He questioned how a judge who was a member of an organization that did not welcome African-Americans as members could rule impartially in cases involving African Americans. He organized pickets at the homes of some of the member judges, most notably Circuit Court Judge Robert Cannon, despite the fact that Cannon was a liberal and had voiced opposition to the Eagles' membership policies. These demonstrations continued, on and off, until 1967. During this period, Groppi also worked for passage of legislation which would outlaw discrimination in the buying and renting of homes (in 1968 such a law was passed on the federal level, known as the Fair Housing Act).

In 1968 Groppi was awarded the Pacem in Terris Peace and Freedom Award by the Davenport Catholic Interracial Council.  It was named after a 1963 encyclical by Pope John XXIII that called upon people of good will to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in terris is Latin for "Peace on earth".

On September 29, 1969, Groppi organized and led the "Welfare Mothers' March on Madison," during which over 1,000 welfare mothers marched into Wisconsin's State Assembly chamber, seizing it in protest against planned welfare cuts. Groppi and his supporters held the State Assembly chamber in a sitdown strike for 11 hours before police recovered the chamber. Cited in a bill of attainder for "contempt of the State Assembly" and sentenced to six months in jail, Groppi appealed to the federal courts, which quickly reversed his conviction. His last appeal was to the United States Supreme Court, which in Groppi v. Leslie invalidated the contempt citation on notice and due process grounds.

Groppi's ecclesiastical superiors did not always approve of his activities and transferred him to St. Michael's Church in 1970. He gradually became disenchanted with the priesthood, and left it in 1976. He later married Margaret Rozga, who became an English professor at the University of Wisconsin-Waukesha. They had three children together.

From 1975 to 1976, Groppi worked for the Tri-County Voluntary Service Committee, where he was responsible for recruiting and supervising VISTA volunteers in Racine, Kenosha and Walworth counties.  He rose again to public attention when he joined Marlon Brando to mediate the clash between the Menominee Indians and the Alexian Brothers at the Alexian Novitiate in Gresham, Wisconsin, in 1975. The Menominee wanted to reclaim the land on which the Novitiate is located.

Groppi attended the Virginia Theological Seminary (Episcopal) in Alexandria, Virginia, during the fall of 1978.  In January 1979, he continued preparations for the Episcopal priesthood by working for St. Andrews Church, an inner-city parish in Detroit, Michigan. However, his lifelong commitment to Roman Catholicism caused him to question whether it was spiritually possible for him to continue conversion to the Episcopal priesthood, and he aborted that pursuit later that year.

In late 1979, Groppi became a bus driver for the Milwaukee County Transit System —- a job he had held in the 1950s to help put himself through seminary—-and remained in that capacity until he died of brain cancer in 1985. In 1983 he was elected president of the bus drivers' local union, ATU 998.

Groppi died on November 4, 1985, 

is buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Milwaukee.  His papers are maintained at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. 

November 22

*Wilhelm Sander, an architect known for building castles in Namibia, died.

Wilhelm Sander (b. December 10, 1860, Berlin, Germany – d. November 22, 1930, Luderitz, German South West Africa [Namibia]) was a master architect and contractor working for Sander & Kock known for his work in German South West Africa, today's Namibia.  

Sander studied civil engineering in Hoxter, Germany.  He worked in Berlin before joining the German Colonial Society for South West Africa (Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft für Südwestafrika) and repatriating to German South West Africa in 1901.

One on his first works were the Swakopmund Railway Station, built in 1901, and the Swakopmund Lighthouse, built in 1902. Also in Windhoek, his buildings today are all famous landmarks. The castles of Windhoek, Heinitzburg, Schwerinsburg and Sanderburg, are what he is best known for here but he also built the Gathemann and Erkrath buildings and was involved in the erection of the Tintenpalast.  Sander also designed Duwisib Castle near Helmeringhausen, the German Lutheran church in Keetmanshoop, and many others.

Wilhelm Sander was married twice: 1910 to Paola née Eck and 1921 to Else née Fröbel. He moved to Lüderitz in 1922, where he stayed until his death in 1930

November 25

An earthquake in the Izu Peninsula of Japan killed 223 people and destroyed 650 buildings.

Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Sheffied Royal Infirmary in England, achieves the first recorded cure (of an eye infection) using penicillin.  

November 29

*David Goldblatt, a South African photographer noted for his portrayal of South Africa during the period of apartheid, was born in Randfontein, Gauteng Province, South Africa.

David Goldblatt (b. November 29, 1930, Randfontein, Gauteng Province, South Africa) was the youngest of the three sons of Eli and Olga Goldblatt. His grandparents arrived in South Africa from Lithuania around 1893, having fled the persecution of Jews in the Baltic.

Goldblatt worked in his father's men's outfitters, attended Krugersdorp High School, and graduated from the University of the Witwatersrand with a degree in commerce.

Goldblatt began photographing in 1948 and documented developments in South Africa through the period of apartheid. In Goldblatt's view color photography seemed too sweet a medium in the Apartheid years to express the loathing that it inspired in him. He documented the dreadfully extensive and uncomfortable twice-daily bus trips of black workers who lived in the segregated "homelands" north east of Pretoria in his work The Transported of KwaNdebele.

Until the end of the 1990s, Goldblatt – in what he calls his personal work – rarely photographed in color. It was only after working on a project involving blue asbestos in north-western Australia, and the resulting disease and death, that his interest in photographing in color increased.  This was coupled with new developments in the field of digital scanning and printing. Only when Goldblatt was able to achieve the same "depth" in his color work that he had previously achieved in his black-and-white photographs, did he choose to explore this field extensively. The result is a blend of Goldblatt’s expertise in the field of classic large-format photography combined with the latest techniques offered by high-end scanners and advanced ink-jet papers, producing images redolent of South Africa’s light and land.

Goldblatt's work is held in major museum collections worldwide. A solo exhibition of his work was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1998. Interest in Goldblatt’s work increased significantly after the eleventh Documenta (Kassel, 2002), as well as a travelling exhibition of 51 years of his work (Barcelona, 2001). At Documenta, two projects were shown: black-and-white work depicting life in the middle-class white community of Boksburg in the 1970s and '80s, as well as examples of later color work from the series Johannesburg Intersections. The comprehensive retrospective of his work, which opened in the AXA Gallery in New York in 2001, offered an overview of Goldblatt’s photographic oeuvre from 1948–1999. His book, South Africa: The Structure of Things Then, published in 1998, offers an in-depth visual analysis of the relationship between South Africa’s structures and the forces that shaped them, from the country’s early colonial beginnings up until 1990.

*****

December

December

 *All adult Turkish women were given the right to vote in elections.

December 2

 *Great Depression: President Herbert Hoover went before the United States Congress to ask for a $150 million public works program to help create jobs and to stimulate the American economy.

December 7

*The television station W1XAV in Boston broadcasts video and audio from the radio orchestra program The Fox Trappers. This broadcast also included the first television commercial in the United States, an advertisement for the I. J. Fox Furriers company which sponsored the telecast.

December 12

*The last allied troops left the Saar.

December 16

*Johnny Hubbard, the first African footballer (soccer player) to compete in the European Cup, was born.

John Gaulton "Johnny" Hubbard, (b. December 16, 1930) spent the majority of his career at Rangers, and latterly played for Bury and Ayr United.  He was the first African player to compete in the European Cup,  having played in October 1956 with Rangers versus Nice, and also the first African player to score a goal in said competition one month later.

Hubbard arrived at Ibrox in 1949, signing for Rangers despite being offered a larger signing on fee by Clyde. He made his debut on September 10, 1949 in a league match against Partick Thistle. This was the first of only two appearances he would make for Rangers that season, the other came against Falkirk. His first goal was scored in a 5-0 home win versus East Fife during a league match on December 23, 1950.

Hubbard became one of the few players to score a hat-trick in an Old Firm hat-trick in an match on January 1, 1955, the only foreign player in Rangers history to do so. Hubbard was nicknamed the "Penalty King" by Rangers fans, due to his exceptional record of 65 goals scored from 68 penalty kicks, 22 consecutively.  He won three league titles and the 1953 Scottish Cup whilst at Rangers and finished top scorer in 1955 with 27 goals.

He left Rangers in 1959 with 238 appearances and 106 goals for the club, moving to Bury for £6,000. After three years at Bury, Hubbard returned to Scotland, spending two years with Ayr United before retiring from football to work as a physical education teacher and a community sports development officer. In 2007, he was named an honorary member of the Rangers Supporters Trust, along with Mark Walters and Billy Simpson.

December 19 

*Mount Merapi volcano in central Java, Indonesia, erupted destroying numerous villages and killing thirteen hundred people.

*Joan Hill, also known as Che-se-quah, a Muscogee Creek artist of Cherokee ancestry, was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma.

Joan Hill (b. December 19, 1930, Muskogee, Oklahoma), also known as Che-se-quah, is one of the most awarded women artists in the Native American art world.

Joan Hill (Cherokee name Chea-Se-Quah, or Redbird) was born in Muskogee, Oklahoma on December 19, 1930, the daughter of William M. and Winnie Harris Hill.

Joan Hill was a descendant of both Muscogee Creek and Cherokee chiefs. She was named Cheh-se-quah, Muscogee for "Redbird," for both her great-grandfather, Redbird Harris, and her maternal grandfather.

Hill lived on the site of the old Confederate Fort Davis, located on the south bank of the Arkansas River two and one-half miles northeast of present day Muskogee, with her family. Her studio was adjacent to a Pre-Columbian Indian mound dating from 1200 CC.

Hill attended Bacone College.  In 1952, she received her bachelor of arts degree in Education from Northeastern State University in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.  In 1953, Hill took the Famous Artists Course.  She was a public art teacher for four years before becoming a full-time artist.

Hill received more than 290 awards from countries including Great Britain and Italy.  Other honors included over 20 Grand Awards, and the Waite Phillips Artist Trophy. In addition, Hill was the winner of a prestigious mural competition at the Daybreak Star Performing Arts Center from the Seattle Arts Commission in Seattle, Washington.  In 1974 Hill was given the title "Master Artist" by the Five Civilized Tribes Museum in Muskogee.

Over 110 of her works are in permanent collections, including the Sequoyah National Research Center in Little Rock, Arkansas, the United States Department of the Interior Museums of the Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Washington, D. C.  and the Smithsonian Museum of the American Indian, New York City, New York.  She was appointed to the Governor's Commission on the Status of Women by Oklahoma Governor Henry Bellmon in 1989 and was appointed United States Commissioner to the Indian Arts and Crafts Board, Washington, D. C. by the United States Secretary of the Interior in 2000. In 2000, Hill was the "Honored One" of the Red Earth festival in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

Hill is known most for her stylized, acrylic paintings of historical and cultural scenes, employed a limited palette of neutrals, oranges, reds, and purples. She also worked in watercolors using negative space to define foliage, mounds, or other landscape features. She predominately painted Creek and Cherokee women and frequently painted the nude figure. Hill also explored non-objective abstraction. 

December 23


*Albert Pillsbury, the drafter of the bylaws for the NAACP, died in Newton, Massachusetts. 

Albert Enoch Pillsbury (b. August 19, 1849, Milford, New Hampshire – d. December 23, 1930, Newton, Massachusetts) was a Boston lawyer who served in both houses of the Massachusetts legislature, President of the Massachusetts State Senate, and as the Attorney General of Massachusetts from 1891 to 1894. In addition to being a member of the National Negro Committee, the precursor to the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People), Pillsbury was a member of the Boston Committee to Advance the Cause of the Negro, which in 1911 became a branch of the NAACP. It was Pillsbury who drafted the bylaws of the NAACP. In 1913, Pillsbury resigned his membership in the American Bar Association when that organization rejected the membership of William H. Lewis, a black assistant United States attorney and supporter of Booker T. Washington.  In 1913, Pillsbury was awarded an honorary LL.D. degree from Howard University. It was there he delivered his speech illuminating, defending and praising President Lincoln's role in ending slavery that became a small book, Lincoln and Slavery.

In 1916, the Massachusetts legislature and electorate approved the calling of a Constitutional Convention. In May 1917, Pillsbury was elected to serve as a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1917, representing the Ninth Norfolk District of the Massachusetts House of Representatives

December 24

*In London, inventor Harry Grindell Matthews demonstrated his device to project pictures on clouds.


*Robert Joffrey, an American dancer, teacher, producer, choreographer, and co-founder of the Joffrey Ballet, was born in Seattle,Washington. 

Robert Joffrey (b. December 24, 1930, Seattle, Washington – d. March 25, 1988, New York City New York), the co-founder of the Joffrey Ballet,  was known for his highly imaginative modern ballets. He was born Anver Bey Abdullah Jaffa Khan in Seattle, Washington to a Pashtun father from Afghanistan and a mother from Italy.

Joffrey began his dance training at nine years old in Seattle as a remedy for asthma under instructor Mary Anne Wells. He later studied ballet and modern dance in New York City and made his debut in 1949 with the French choreographer Roland Petit and his Ballet de l'Opéra National de Paris. From 1950 to 1955, he taught at the New York High School for the Performing Arts, where he staged his earliest ballets. He founded the Joffrey Ballet Schoolin New York City in 1953, where it remains as a separate organization from The Joffrey Academy of Dance in Chicago, which is the official school of the Joffrey Ballet Company.

As one of the first prolific choreographers to have studied both modern dance and ballet, his choreography began to create the hybrid between modern and ballet that is very common today. His choreography seamlessly blends the precise footwork, precision, and grace of classical ballet with the floorwork, upper body dexterity, and raw emotion of modern dance.

In 1954, he formed his own company, which premiered Le bal masqué (The Masked Ball, 1954; music by French composer Francis Poulenc) and Pierrot Lunaire (1955; music by Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg). Joffrey's other works include Gamelan (1962) and Astarte (1967), which was set to rock music with special lighting and motion-picture effects. The pas de deux features a man who leaves his seat in the audience to climb on stage for an erotic dance with the “tattooed love goddess”.

In 1956, six dancers drove around the country in a station wagon, performing twenty-three shows in eleven states. This was the first tour of the Robert Joffrey Studio Dancers, and they soon performed in India, the Middle East, the Soviet Union, and at the White House.

The Robert Joffrey Ballet took up residence at New York City Center in 1966 replacing New York City Ballet and changing its name to the City Center Joffrey Ballet. In 1982, it moved its principal activities to Los Angeles and in 1995 to Chicago. Noted for its experimental repertoire, the company was called the Joffrey Ballet of Chicago after its move but has since returned to being called simply the Joffrey Ballet. Besides Joffrey's works its repertoire includes many works by Gerald Arpino, Joffrey's long-time co-director, romantic partner, and eventually artistic director emeritus until his 2008 death, and ballets commissioned by Joffrey from new choreographers as well as works by such established choreographers as George Balanchine, Alvin Ailey and Twyla Tharp. He prided himself on creating a dynamic and diverse repertory, bringing modern dance choreographers such as Tharp and Ailey to ballet audiences for the first time, the restaging of classic Ballet Russes ballets, and The Joffrey Ballet was the first American company to perform the work of Danish choreographer August Bournonville.

Robert Joffrey also departed from the traditional ranking system seen in most ballet companies where most dancers know the caliber of roles they will receive based on ranking. He opted instead for an ensemble group that could easily change in and out of leading roles, leading to a stronger sense of unity.

He was co-president of the International Dance Committee with Bolshoi Ballet Director Yuri Grigorovich, a member of the National Council of the Arts, a juror for Denmark’s Hans Christian Andersen Dance Awards, and has won the Dance Magazine Award, the Capezio Award, and New York City’s Handel Medallion.

Joffrey died in New York City of HIV/AIDS^[8][9] on March 25, 1988, at age 57. He is interred at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine.^[10] Initially, to protect the reputation of his company, obituaries listed the cause of death as organ failure.

Joffrey was inducted into the National Museum of Dance's Mr. & Mrs. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney Hall of Fame in 2000.

December 25

*Muhammad Salah Eldin Bahgat Ahmad Helmy (Arabic: محمد صلاح الدين بهجت أحمد حلمي), known as "Salah Jaheen" or "Salah Jahin" (Arabic: صلاح جاهين‎) (b. December 25, 1930, Cairo, Egypt – d. April 21, 1986, Cairo, Egypt) was a leading Egyptian poet, lyricist, playwright and cartoonist, was born in Cairo, Egypt.

December 28

*George Dureau, an artist and photographer known for his photographs of young black men, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana.

George Dureau (b. December 28, 1930, New Orleans, Louisiana – d. April 7, 2014) was an American artist whose long career was most notable for charcoal sketches and black and white photography of poor white and black athletes, dwarfs, and amputees.  Robert Mapplethorpe is said to have been inspired by Dureau's amputee and dwarf photographs, which showed the figures as exposed and vulnerable, playful and needy, complex and entirely human individuals. His 1999 New Orleans Jazz Festival painting depicting Professor Longhair is widely regarded as the most impressive of all the Jazz Fest posters.

Dureau was born to Clara Rosella Legett Dureau and George Valentine Dureau in the Irish Channel, New Orleans, Louisiana. He was raised in Mid-City. He graduated with a fine arts degree from LSU in 1952, after which he began architectural studies at Tulane University.  He briefly served in the United States Army. Before being able to survive as an artist, he worked for Maison Blanche, a New Orleans department store, as a display designer. For the vast majority of his life, he lived in the French Quarter, where he was well known for his eccentricity and hospitality. His friend and student, Robert Mapplethorpe re-staged many of his earlier black and white photographs. Dureau died of Alzheimer's disease.

Many of his pieces are held at the Ogden Museum of Southern Art.  Several of his works are displayed publicly throughout New Orleans, most notably, the pediment sculpture for Harrah's Casino and his cast-bronze sculptures stand sentinel at the entrance gates of  New Orleans City Park.  His depiction of a Mardi Gras parade dominates one wall in Gallier Hall.  One of his more popular set of works, "Black 1973-1986," a series of black and white photographs concentrating on young black men, toured throughout the United States to rave reviews.

December 29

*Muhammad Iqbal's presidential address in Allahabad introduced the two-nation theory, outlining a vision for the creation of Pakistan. 

*Irving Gottesman, an American professor of psychology who devoted most of his career to the study of the genetics of schizophrenia, was born in Cleveland, Ohio. 

Irving Isadore Gottesman (b. December 29, 1930, Cleveland, Ohio – d. June 29, 2016, Edina, Minnesota) wrote 17 books and more than 290 other publications, mostly on schizophrenia and behavioral genetics, and created the first academic program on behavioral genetics in the United States. He won awards such as the Hofheimer Prize for Research, the highest award from the American Psychiatric Association for psychiatric research. Lastly, Gottesman was a professor in the psychology department at the University of Minnesota, where he received his Ph.D.

A native of Ohio, Gottesman studied psychology for his undergraduate and graduate degrees, became a faculty member at various universities, and spent most of his career at the University of Virginia and the University of Minnesota. He is known for researching schizophrenia in identical twins to document the contributions of genetics and the family, social, cultural, and economic environment to the onset, progress, and inter-generational transmission of the disorder. Gottesman worked with researchers to analyze hospital records and conduct follow-up interviews of twins where one or both were schizophrenic. He has also researched the effects of genetics and the environment on human violence and variations in human intelligence.  Gottesman and co-researcher James Shields introduced the word epigenetics — the control of genes  by biochemical signals modified by the environment from other parts of the genome — to the field of psychiatric genetics. 

Gottesman has written and co-written a series of books which summarize his work. These publications include raw data from various studies, their statistical interpretation, and possible conclusions presented with necessary background material. The books also include first-hand accounts of schizophrenic patients and relatives tending to them, giving an insight into jumbled thoughts, the disorder's primary symptom. Gottesman and Shields built models to explain the cause, transmission, and progression of the disorder, which is controlled by many genes acting in concert with the environment, with no cause sufficient by itself.

Gottesman was born in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1930, to Bernard and Virginia Gottesman (née Weitzner), who were Hungarian–Romanian Jewish immigrants. He was educated at Miles Standish Elementary and a public school in Cleveland's Shaker Heights. After leaving school, Gottesman joined the United States Navy, where he was given a scholarship and the rank of midshipman, and was assigned to the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. He first specialized in physics but changed to psychology,  receiving his B.S. degree in 1953.

Gottesman did his graduate work at the University of Minnesota, which then patterned its clinical psychology program on the Boulder model, which emphasized research theory and clinical practice. He joined the graduate program in 1956 after three years with the Navy, supported by the Korean War G. I. Bill.  He began investigating personality traits in identical and fraternal twins who had filled out the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). His Ph.D. thesis, submitted to Psychological Monographs, was rejected before a review on the grounds that the nature-nurture issue it addressed had already been settled in favor of nurture. On appeal, the thesis was reviewed and accepted for publication.

Gottesman began his career at Harvard University as a social relations and psychology lecturer. This non-tenure-track position ended after three years. Then he worked with researcher James Shields at the Maudsley-Bethlem hospital complex in London, using its twin registry to analyze traits of identical and fraternal twins at the lab of Eliot Slater, whom Gottesman met in Rome at the Second International Congress on Human Genetics in 1961. After his return to the University of Minnesota in 1966, Gottesman created a program on behavioral genetics, the first in the United States.  In 1972–1973, he received a Guggenheim fellowship to work with K.O. Christiansen in Denmark. In 1980, he left to join the Washington University School of Medicine, then moved to the University of Virginia in 1985, where he started the clinical psychology training program.  Gottesman continued visiting London and collaborating with Shields, with whom he co-wrote a series of books. After spending 16 years at the University of Virginia, Gottesman retired from an active role after 41 years of research, but continued research part-time in psychology and psychiatry.

From 2011 until his death, Gottesman was a professor with an endowed chair in adult psychiatry and a senior fellow in psychology at the University of Minnesota; a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the Academy of Clinical Psychology, and the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University; a Guggenheim Fellow for 1972–1973 at the University of Copenhagen; an emeritus in psychology with a chair endowment at the University of Virginia; and an honorary fellow at the London Royal College of Psychiatrists. He advised 35 graduate students, and an annual lecture on behavior and neurogenetics was established in his name by the University of Virginia.  Gottesman was married to Carol Applen, whom he wed on December 23, 1970; they had two sons.  Gottesman died on June 29, 2016.

Gottesman first studied the genetics of schizophrenia on a large scale using the Maudsley–Bethlem register of twin admissions for 16 years. Later he worked on psychiatric genetics and genomics.  In his Twin Cities MMPI study, part of his Ph.D. thesis, Gottesman found high levels of inheritance in the scales related to schizophrenia, depression, anti-social personality disorder,  and social introversion. Genes strongly influenced social introversion and aggressive tendencies. This led to further studies on personality traits of identical twins such as the Minnesota Study of Identical Twins Reared Apart.

Analyzing the results of the Maudsley–Bethlem study, Gottesman and Shields devised the multi-element, polygenic causation model for schizophrenia by modeling schizophrenia diagnoses using the recently introduced liability-threshold model. The book that summarized and expanded on the study, Schizophrenia and Genetics: A Twin Study Vantage Point, argued that schizophrenia is a product of several genes acting together, and introduced the techniques of precise analysis in the field of behavioral genetics.  Gottesman and Shields introduced terms such as "reaction ranges/surface", "endophenotype" and "epigenetic puzzle" into the behavioral sciences. The threshold model hypothesized that both genetic and environmental risks combined to produce schizophrenia, and pushed an individual into a diagnosable condition when their influence grew strong enough. The reaction range concept is the idea that the genes and the environment control behavior, but with separate upper and lower limits on the strength of that control in each case, a concept now part of basic psychology. Before the study, the prevailing opinion was that schizophrenia originated from bad parental relationships. The researchers showed identical twins were more likely to either have or not have schizophrenia together, concluding the disorder was the "outcome of a genetically determined developmental predisposition".

The Maudsley–Bethlem study also hypothesized that schizophrenia was caused by a mixture of many small traits working together. These endophenotypes could be used for diagnosis.  Endophenotypes have been interpreted as a link between genes and the final behavior, acted on by the environment and chance elements, with biochemical and epigenetic influences changing the genome but not being passed on to children. Molecular-biological studies in genetics have referred to endophenotypes to explain genetic causes of psychopathology. The researchers also examined how schizoids, those with mild, schizophrenia-like personality disorders, were linked to schizophrenics. Gottesman and Shields extended the term to classes of mild psychological disorders in twins and relatives of schizophrenics. The researchers had hypothesized that schizoida in a twin was how a schizophrenia carrier gene,  one in a non-schizophrenic still passing on a genetic risk, expressed itself. The twin study did not confirm this.

In the Denmark study, the researchers evaluated the extent to which genes underpin psychopathology. Their twin studies of criminality found that a genetic disposition to poor self-control caused both identical twins to become felons, or to not become felons. They also studied identical twins who were discordant for schizophrenia, where one twin was schizophrenic and the other not, and found children of such twins had equal genetic vulnerability to the disease. A later study in the mid-1980s, resulting in a paper awarded the Kurt Schneider Prize, concluded that children of identical twins were at higher risk than those of fraternal twins, indicating the non-schizophrenic identical twin passed on a latent genetic disposition, even if it had not been expressed through schizoida. The Denmark study introduced the concepts of "unexpressed genotypes" — the latent genetic risk, and "epigenetic control" — the biochemical regulation of how genes work, into the new field of behavioral genetics.

In a 1989 review of the research on juvenile delinquency and violence, Lisabeth DiLalla and Gottesman found delinquency could be transitory or continuous, and genes contributed more to the continuous type. In 1991 the same authors published a critique of the then-prevalent idea of antisocial behavior being transmitted through generations by child abuse alone in antisocial families.

Gottesman was one of the presenters at the 1995 conference at the Aspen Institute in Maryland on how strongly genes controlled a person's leaning toward violence and crime. Gottesman presented results from studies on the influence of genes in criminality, stating that identical twins separated at birth were likely to show similar levels of criminal behavior. This concordance indicated that genes influenced such behavior. He did point out that behavioral patterns were strongly influenced by the environment and not set by genes alone. The conference, funded by the National Institutes of Health, was contentious, with detractors arguing that such studies would lead to minority groups, more likely to be criminals because they had lower social status or were poor, being targeted with gene therapy for violence. Protesters disrupted the conference and swarmed into the auditorium. Gottesman reasserted his belief that scientists should proceed with the research, not waiting for humanity to become ethical enough not to misuse it.

In 1972, Gottesman was called before the United States Senate by senator Walter Mondale to discuss the then 15-point IQ gap separating African Americans and European Americans. Gottesman testified that genes influenced IQ, but only in conjunction with elements such as schooling, money, and nutritious food from childhood onwards.  In 2003, he and colleagues published a study showing that heritability was higher for IQ differences within high socioeconomic status (SES) people than among low SES people, i.e., genes influenced differences between children's test scores more among high SES than among low SES children.

Gottesman researched and published on the abuse of genetic research in Nazi Germany, and provided expert testimony in a Chinese human rights case involving schizophrenia in the family. His scholarly books on schizophrenia also highlighted the human costs of the disorder. In Schizophrenia Genesis: The Origins of Madness, he provided chapters in which patients describe their experiences of the disease, and those of their families. Gottesman emphasized that genetics influences patients' behavior in concert with the family, social, economic, and cultural contexts. Gottesman also highlighted random events as an important "third element" determining behavior and what unfolds as apparent destiny. In his writings, he reflected that the interaction between these elements is known only at the level of probabilities, and not as fixed and precise quantities.

Gottesman authored nine books, all related to schizophrenia and psychiatric genetics.

*****

December 31 

 *The Papal encyclical Casti connubii issued by Pope Pius XI stressed the sanctity of marriage, prohibited Roman Catholics from using any form of artificial birth control, and reaffirmed the Catholic prohibition on abortion. 

Date unknown

*A "Jake paralysis" outbreak occurred in the United States resulting from adulterated Jamaica ginger sold as an alcohol substitute during Prohibition.  

*Bernhard Schmidt invented the Schmidt camera.  

*The chocolate chip cookies was invented by Ruth Wakefield of the Toll House Inn in Whitman, Massachusetts.  

*The experimental television station, W9XAP, in Chicago, broadcasted the election for the United States Senate, the first time that a senatorial race, with continual tallies of the votes, was televised.

*Greater Sudbury was incorporated as a city in northern Ontario. 

*The world's population reached close to 2 billion with much of it in the grip of an economic depression.

*Emigration from the United States for the first time in history exceeded immigration.

*****

*Simha Arom, a French-Israeli ethnomusicologist who is recognized as a world expert on the music of central Africa, especially that of the Central African Republic, was born.

In the 1960s, Simha Arom (b. 1930) was sent by the Government of Israel to establish a brass band in the Central African Republic. He became fascinated by the traditional music of this country, especially the vocal polyphonies of the Aka Pygmies 2. He entered the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) in 1968 and in 1984 he received its Silver Medal. He did field work every year from 1971 to 1991, accompanied by ethnolinguists and students, to record this music to study it and preserve it. 

Simha Arom was awarded a First Prize for French Horn at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique of Paris before becoming an ethnomusicologist. Using interactive experiments, he worked on uncovering implicit musical systems and the way in which cultures build cognitive categories as attested in their music. His work is based on the postulate that, in order for it to be valid, data collected in the field must be corroborated by cognitive data specific to the holders of the culture studied. His research topics include the temporal organization of music, musical scales, polyphonic techniques, music in the social system and the elaboration of conceptual tools for the categorization, analysis and modeling of traditional music. From a mostly descriptive discipline, he tried to build a science in the full sense of the word, with all of its attributes: experimentation, verification, validation, modeling, conceptualization and reconstitution by means of synthesis. He was a Visiting Professor at many universities– particularly Montreal, UCLA, Vancouver, M.I.T., Cambridge (U.K.), Tel-Aviv, Bar-Ilan, Haifa, Basel, Zurich, Siena, and Venice, and his work inspired contemporary composers such as Luciano Berio (Coro), György Ligeti, Steve Reich, Fabien Lévy and Fabian Panisello. 

Simha Arom became Research Director Emeritus at the CNRS, a founding member of the Société française d'ethnomusicologie, the Société française d'analyse musicale, the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music (ESCOM) and the European Seminar in Ethnomusicology.  He also became a member of the Société française de musicologie and served on the Board of directors of The Universe of Music project (UNESCO). His sound archives were deposited in 2011 at the sound library of the Bibliothèque nationale de France.

The books of Simha Arom include African Polyphony and Polyrhythm: Musical Structure and Methodology (1991). He also made some historical field recordings of the Aka Pygmy music.

*****

*Pierre Chaulet, an Algerian doctor who worked for the FLN during the Algerian War and who introduced Frantz Fanon to the FLN, was born in Algiers, Algeria.

Pierre Chaulet (b. 1930, Algiers, Algeria - d. October 5, 2012, Algiers, Algeria) performed secret operations on FLN (Front de Libération Nationale or National Liberation Front) fighters and sheltered the FLN leader Ramdane Abane.  Eventually his cover was blown and he was expelled to France. Chaulet and his wife, Claudine, rejoined the FLN in Tunisia where he continued to work as a doctor and to write for the FLN paper, El Moudjahid. 

It was Chaulet who introduced Frantz Fanon to the FLN at Blida in 1955.

After Algerian independence, Chaulet joined the Mustapha Pacha Hospital. He contributed to the eradication of tuberculosis in Algeria. Claudine Chaulet became a professor of sociology at the University of Algiers. In 1992, when Muhammad Boudiaf was invited back to Algeria after an exile of 27 years, he asked for Pierre Chaulet's assistance.

Chaulet was a member of the Conseil national économique et social (CNES) in Algeria. He died on October 5, 2012, and was buried in Diar Saâda's Christian Cemetery.

*****
*Alan Eyre, a British born Jamaican geographer and environmentalist, was born in Leeds, England.

Lawrence Alan Eyre (b. 1930, Leeds, England) was co-founder of the Department of Geography of the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.  His academic work has focused on the political geography of shanty towns and the degradation of the tropical rain forest.

In 1972, Eyre published one of the first Caribbean studies on urban geography, showing that the inner city tenements and not the shanty town was the first destination of rural migrants, then, when stable work is found and income saved, outward to the peri-urban shanty towns; and noting income variance in the shanty towns. Eyre was one of the first urban geographers in Caribbean-Latin American context to clearly document the inner-city/peri-urban shanty distinction. In a later (1984) study, Eyre found evidence of both marginality and self-improvement in the Jamaican shanty towns.  Eyre's work (1984, 1986) also documented party political violence as a component of peri-urban geography, hurricane housing (1989) and self-help housing (1997).

In Slow death of a tropical rainforest: The Cockpit Country of Jamaica, West Indies (1994) Eyre proposed that the Cockpit Country, Jamaica's largest remaining contiguous rainforest be zoned a World Heritage Site in the face of continuing encroachment and degradation, despite proposals for protection having originated as early as Cotterell (1979) and Aiken (1986). Eyre's study was one of the main academic starting points for a petition sponsored by the Cockpit Country Stakeholders' Group and Jamaica Environmental Advocacy Network which was submitted to Prime Minister Bruce Golding in 2006.

He was also a member of the Christadelphian church. The Christadelphians are a millenarian Christian group who hold a view of Biblical Unitarianism. There are approximately 50,000 Christadelphians in around 120 countries. The movement developed in the United Kingdom and North America in the 19th century around the teachings of John Thomas, who coined the name Christadelphian from the Greek for "Brethren in Christ".

Basing their beliefs solely on the Bible, Christadelphians differ from mainstream Christianity in a number of doctrinal areas. For example, they reject the Trinity and the immortality of the soul,  believing these to be corruptions of original Christian teaching. They were initially found predominantly in the developed English-speaking world, but expanded in developing countries after the Second World War. Congregations are traditionally referred to as 'ecclesias' and would not use the word 'church' due to its association with mainstream Christianity, although today it is more acceptable.

*****

*Pablo Fernandez, a Cuban poet, novelist, essayist and playwright, was born in Central Delicias, Orient, Cuba).

In 1996, Pablo Armando Fernández (1930, Central Delicias, Oriente, Cuba) was awarded the National Prize for Literature, Cuba's national literary award.

Fernández lived in the United States from 1945 to 1959. After the Cuban Revolution, he moved back to the island. His early works were personal, but he later wrote on social matters. 

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*The Genain quadruplets, a set of identical quadruplet sisters who all developed schizophrenia, were born in a mid-western town in the United States.

The Genain quadruplets (b. 1930) were a set of identical quadruplet sisters. All four developed schizophrenia, suggesting a large genetic component to the cause of the disease. The pseudonym Genain, used to protect the identity of the family, comes from the Greek, meaning dire (αἶνος) birth (γεν-).  The sisters were given the pseudonyms Nora, Iris, Myra and Hester, to represent each of the four letters in NIMH, the acronym for the United States National Institute of Mental Health.  Nora, Iris, and Hester were hospitalized for their schizophrenia at least once each.

The sisters were born in a midwestern American town (nicknamed “Envira”) on April 14, 1930. They were considered local celebrities due to the quadruple nature of their birth.

The four sisters grew up with their parents in the same household. The Genain sisters' parents were described as "disturbed". Their paternal grandmother may have had paranoid schizophrenia, and their father was described as abusive. Myra and Nora were probably treated more favorably by their parents, while Iris and Hester were treated more harshly. The parents considered Hester to be a “habitual masturbator” and referred to her as a “moron type” or “sex maniac”. Iris and Hester were both circumcised as children in order to prevent them from masturbation. The quadruplets were reportedly physically abused by their father.

Subsequently, the Genains accepted an offer by the NIMH to take the daughters into their clinic and each was diagnosed with schizophrenia.

All of the sisters except Hester graduated from high school.

Myra worked as a secretary for most of her life.  She married and had two sons. When she grew older, she frequently visited her sisters Nora and Hester. Her eldest son contracted HIV after a blood transfusion and died in 1996, while her younger son became a maintenance worker and retained a close relationship with his mother.  Nora later managed the income the sisters received for having their photograph published in textbooks. Iris worked as a beautician for a while but most of her adult life was spent institutionalized.

All four of the sisters developed schizophrenia by the age of 24.

There was a history of mental illness in Mr. Genain's family that might have been an example of genetics being linked with mental illness or it may have just been a dysfunctional and abusive family free from a specific genetic component.

Mr. Genain's mother had had a three-year nervous breakdown in her late teens. The NIMH had recorded behaviors in Mr. Genain's siblings indicative of mental illness.

*****

*Alfred Gerteiny, an American author and scholar of Middle Eastern and African Studies who was aa expert on the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the Palestinian issue, and International Terrorism, was born.

Alfred G. Gerteiny (b. 1930) posited that the "imposition" of Israel in Palestine by the International Community was an unprecedented historical blunder, and that United States blind support of Israel, its strategy, policies and practices in the Occupied Territories as instrumental to the instability and chaos in the Middle East. Gerteiny argued that the two states solution to the conflict in Palestine is fundamentally flawed, not only because of the intractable mutual claim to the whole former mandate by the warring parties, but also because of its fundamental meaning and importance to Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the three branches of the Abrahamic Tradition. He suggested that a more practical and equitable solution may be one patterned after the Helvetic model—an internationally neutralized "Holy Land Confederation," with Jewish, Christian and Muslim cantons, and with Jerusalem as capital. In The Terrorist Conjunction, he further argued that "bad foreign policy choices, when coupled with grievances in the Middle East, are a fuel that triggers terrorizing violence."

Before devoting his academic focus on the Middle East, Gerteiny was best known for his field work in, and expertise on, the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, a hitherto unknown African territory, which mysteries he reported in books and journal articles.

As an academic, Gerteiny emphasized the fundamental importance of Tenure, Academic Freedom and Collegiality in the pursuit of truth, particularly at institutions of higher learning, and as president of the University of Bridgeport's Chapter of the American Association of University Professors, he led the longest higher education faculty strike in United States history in defense of these values, ultimately losing tenure and position, along with the striking faculty.

Gerteiny was born in Heliopolis, Egypt, where he was reared in the family’s French cultural tradition. He was the son of Officier d'Académie Georges J. Gerteiny, Secrétaire de l’Institut Français d’Archaéologie Orientale du Caire, and of Nabiha Sophie.

After completing the primary education cycle at the Heliopolis Jesuit school, Gerteiny graduated from the Lycee Francais du Caire, and in Europe, from Institut d'Etude et de Recherches Diplomatique de Paris (ILERI).  He also took specialized courses at the Hague Academy of International Law.  In New York, he attended Columbia University's Middle East Institute, and in 1963 was awarded a Ph.D. in Contemporary History from St. John's University. Gerteiny lectured and conducted graduate seminars at St. John's University's African Studies Center, as well as at the University of Bridgeport where he served as chairman of History.  He also lectured worldwide.

Gerteiny was a research assistant to the late Charles Ammoun, Lebanon's Ambassador to UNESCO, on the Apartheid Project, a managing editor at Grolier, Inc., and he developed, produced and hosted "As History Unfolds," a political discussion series on the University of Bridgeport (U.B-TV) public channel. Gerteiny served also as consultant on Mauritanian Affairs to the Peace Corps, to the PKNO-AURA, to the 1973 Solar Eclipse expedition to Mauritania, as well as to Arizona State University's Meteoritic Institute, concerning their Chinguetti meteorite research planning project.  He was a Senior Research Fulbright Scholar in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco where he studied the determinants of these nations foreign policies, and later served twice on the National Screening Committee for Fulbright Grants to the MENA region.

He was married in 1955 to Elizabeth Folsom Leppert, in Scarsdale, New York.  They had two daughters and a son.

*****

*Peter Hagan, the sheriff of Putnam County, Florida, who is best known for opposing the Ku Klux Klan and mob violence, died.

Peter Monroe Hagan (1871–1930) was sheriff of Putnam County, Florida, from 1916 to 1924 and from 1928 to 1930. He is known for opposing the Ku Klux Klan and mob violence in the county in the violent period between 1915 and 1930. His thwarting of lynching attempts and his winning the pivotal 1928 election became a referendum against Klan and mob violence.

In the decades after World War I, mob violence and lynchings directed at African American citizens was on the increase in Florida (in contrast to much of the rest of the United States) and the Ku Klux Klan was a mainstream organization. On June 8, 1922, the Palatka Daily News reported on a public event staged by the Klan the previous night in Palatka, Florida,  which was attended by large crowds. Over 200 Klansmen from across the county gathered in the city's stadium to initiate twenty new members and performed a ceremony including a burning cross and banners reading "White Supremacy". On October 16, 1922 the Daily News reported another Klan event at Palatka’s leading Methodist church where six Klansmen marched through the building and presented a $50 contribution to the church's building fund. Included with the donation was a letter, quoted in the article, which read:

Rev. J.D Sibert, pastor Methodist Church Palatka, Fla. Esteemed Sir:
This organization having ever at heart the furtherance of the Master’s cause, especially with regard to the Protestant faith, and being in hearty sympathy with the efforts of your people to complete an edifice that will better enable you to accomplish good, be an honor to our city and reflect the glory of the living God - we take great pleasure in handing you herewith a small contribution ($50) to your building fund.
Assuring you of our highest regard for yourself personally and for your people collectively, we are most respectfully, Putnam Klan No. 13, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.

The letter was read out loud to the congregation and the reverend "offered fervent thanks" to the Klan.

Hagan was elected sheriff of Putnam County in 1916. In the aftermath of World War I, mob violence directed by the Ku Klux Klan and other white vigilantes against blacks, Catholics and women they accused of transgressing the social order was on the increase. This combined with Prohibition led to the highest crime rates in Putnam County's history. Hagan was faced with two lynching attempts in 1919 alone, after which he wrote in the Palatka Daily News:

I want to say to the people of Palatka that there will be no repetition of this affair, and any effort on the part of outsiders to come here and create disorder and engender ill-feeling between the two races will be met with force sufficient to stop it where it begins …

We have determined to see that the colored people of this town and county get the protection to which they are entitled, and that no hoodlums can come here and cowardly attack old and innocent colored men without having justice meted out to them for their offense.

Hagan was re-elected in 1920, but racist mob violence only continued to increase.

In March 1923, a band of white road crew workers from Gainesville attempted to storm the Putnam County Jail with the intention of lynching Arthur Johnson, a black man awaiting trial on accusations of murdering their white co-worker Hugh C. Cross. The sheriff's official residence was on the site of the county jail.  The would-be lynch mob fired weapons at the building, injuring Sheriff Hagan, but fled when the sheriff and deputy held their ground. Hagan and his deputies notified Sheriff Ramsey in Alachua County, leading to the arrest of eighteen men on their way back to Gainesville after the failed attack on the county jail. Hagan was praised by legislators and the press for his actions in stopping the attack, but of the eighteen culprits arrested only nine made it to trial and they were swiftly acquitted by the white jury.

In the 1924 election Hagan ran unsuccessfully against Israel James Fennell, a candidate supported by the racist mob, for re-election as the county's sheriff. Announcing his campaign for re-election on March 7, 1924, Hagan stated his position on the Ku Klux Klan:

I am not, and would not be a member, however, of any organization which appears to differ in policies from those who do not belong to its ranks, for the reason that as Sheriff I believe it to be my duty to be perfectly free to serve all of the people and not an organized part of them; I wish to feel perfectly free to perform my duties without obligations to any order, however high the ideals of such order may be. I have no personal quarrel with the Klan; many of its members are my friends whom I respect and honor, but as Sheriff, I am free, and will remain free to administer the law impartially to all.

The KKK would reach the peak of its local influence two years later, but by 1928 public opinion was shifting and Sheriff Hagan was voted back into office after a four-year absence. He died two years later.

*****

*Emilie Bigelow Hapgood, a theatrical produced in New York City and the one time president of the Stage Society, died.

Emilie Bigelow Hapgood (unknown-1930) founded the Circle of War Relief for Negro Soldiers in November 1917 during World War I, and led it for some time. She herself was white. She married Norman Hapgood in 1896.  They were divorced in 1915. Georgia Douglas Johnson, one of the noted poets of the Harlem Renaissance, wrote a poem titled "TO EMILIE BIGELOW HAPGOOD - PHILANTHROPIST", which Johnson included in Bronze: A Book of Verse, published in 1922.

*****

*Farkhonda Hassan, a professor of geology who became the co-chair of the Gender Advisory Board of the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development and 

Farkhonda Hassan (Arabic: فرخندة حسن‎‎) (b. 1930) is a professor of geology at the American University in Cairo (AUC) and is chair of the Commission on Human Development and Local Administration of the Shura Council.

Hassan earned a bachelor of science degrees in chemistry and geology from Cairo University, a master of science degree in solid state science from the American University in Cairo, and a Ph.D. in geology from the University of Pittsburgh. She also held a Diploma in Psychology and Education from Ain Shams University in Egypt.

Hassan was co-chair of the Gender Advisory Board of the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development and Secretary-General (2001) and Member of the National Council for Women in Egypt. As a scientist, politician and development specialist, she had a career centered on women's causes in policies, public services, sciences, information and technology, social work at grass roots level, education and culture, and other disciplines. Her affiliations with national and international organizations, non-governmental organizations, research and knowledge institutions have been directed towards women's empowerment.  Hassan served as a short-term consultant and expert to several international and regional programs organized by various United Nations Organizations such as UNIFEM, UNDP, INSTRAW and UNESCO.

*****

*Charlotte Iserbyt, an American freelance writer who served as the Senior Policy Advisor in the Office of Educational Research and Improvement during the Reagan administration and who is best known for writing The Deliberate Dumbing Down of America, was born.

Charlotte Thomson Iserbyt (b. 1930, Toronto, Ontario, Canada) served as the Senior Policy Advisor in the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), United States Department of Education, during the first term of President Ronald Reagan, and staff employee of the United States Department of State.

Iserbyt was born in 1930 and attended Dana Hall preparatory school and Katherine Gibbs Collection in New York City, where she studied business. Iserbyt's father and grandfather were Yale University graduates and members of the Skull and Bones secret society. 

Iserbyt is known for writing the book The Deliberate Dumbing Down of America. The book reveals that changes gradually brought into the American public education system work to eliminate the influences of a child's parents (religion, morals, national patriotism), and mold the child into a member of the proletariat in preparation for a socialist-collectivist world of the future. She says that these changes originated from plans formulated primarily by the Andrew Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Education and Rockefeller General Education Board,  and details the psychological methods used to implement and effect the changes.

*****

*Anton Joachimsthaler, a German historian best known for his research on the early life of Adolf Hitler, was born in Hohenelbe, Sudetenland.

Anton Joachimsthaler (b. 1930, Hohenelbe, Sudetenland) is particularly noted for his research on the early life of the German dictator Adolf Hitler, in his book Korrektur einer Biografie ("Correction of a Biography") and his last days in the book Hitler's Ende ("Hitler's Ende").

Joachimsthaler was born in 1930 in Hohenelbe in the Sudetenland. He studied electrical engineering at the Oskar-von-Miller-Polytechnikum, a predecessor of the Munich University of Applied Sciences.  Afterwards he worked in 1956 for the Deutsche Bundesbahn (German Federal Railroad) as a mechanical and electrical engineer in various places, his last position being as a senior service manager in the Munich-Freimann repair station. 

Joachimsthaler produced publications on the history of technology and general history, and contributed to television broadcasts from ZDF Mainz, such as Hitler as a private man. His work Korrektur einer Biografie ("Correction of a Biography"), in which he made many facts about Hitler's early years known to a broader public, was particularly well received, and his book Hitler's Ende ("Hitler's End"), which was published in English as The Last Days of Hitler: Legend, Evidence and Truth, is often cited.

Joachimsthaler is best known for his contributions to the study of the life of Adolf Hitler. With the Austrian historian Brigitte Hamann, he is the researcher who has delivered the most important contributions over the last decades to revision of Hitler's early years of life in Linz, Vienna and Munich.  He helped to shatter the view, expressed by other historians, that the young Hitler was an established anti-semite in the period before the World War I, by highlighting convincing evidence that Hitler developed into a serious anti-semite only during or immediately after the war. This he ascertained from his research in the city archives of Hitler's hometown, Linz. Also, the fact that Stefanie Rabatsch,  with whom Hitler, according to his boyhood friend August Kubizek, had developed a fanatical youthful love, had the maiden name of "Isak". The fact that Hitler had a romantic interest in a girl whom he believed due to her Jewish-sounding name to be Jewish, although in fact she was not, made a serious anti-Semitic attitude of the later dictator highly unlikely at that time.

*****
*Paul Merab, a Georgian physician and researcher of Ethiopia, died in Paris, France.

Paul Merab (real name: Petre Merabishvili) (b. 1876, Ude, Georgia – d. 1930, Paris, France), was born in a Georgian Roman Catholic community, now Samtskhe-Javakheti region in south Georgia. A Sorbonne graduate, Merab was hired in Constantinople to work as a physician for the Ethiopian Emperor Menilek II for several years. He lived in Ethiopia from 1908 to 1929, except for the years of the First World War when he volunteered in the French military. In 1910, he founded the first pharmacy in Addis Ababa which he called "Pharmacie de la Géorgie". In 1929, he finally resettled to France, where he published his informative researches and memories of Ethiopia.

*****

*Marion Stevenson, a Scottish missionary with the Church of Scotland Mission in British East Africa (Kenya), died.

Marion Scott Stevenson (b. May 19, 1871, Forfar, Scotland – d. 1930) was a Scottish missionary with the Church of Scotland Mission in British East Africa (Kenya) from 1907 until 1929.

Stevenson worked at first for the church's Kikuyu mission at Thogoto, then from 1912 for its mission at Tumutumu in Karatina, set up by Reverend Henry Scott and Dr. John Arthur in 1908. She established and ran a girls' school, which became Tumutumu Girls' High School, taught sewing, knitting and hygiene, worked in the hospital, trained teachers and helped to translate the Bible.

In 1929 Stevenson coined the term "sexual mutilation of women" to describe female circumcision, a practice of great importance to the Kikuyu people, Kenya's largest tribe. The Kenya Missionary Council followed suit, and began referring to it that year as sexual mutilation, rather than as circumcision or initiation. It is now widely known as female genital mutilation.