1930 - Africa: G-M

Ghana

(Gold Coast)

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*Bernard Jao Da Rocha, a founding member and the first National Chairman of the New Patriotic Party, was born in Cape Coast, Gold Coast (May 24).

Bernard Jao Da Rocha (b. May 24, 1930, Cape Coast, Gold Coast – d. February 23, 2010) was the first Ghanaian Director of the Ghana School of Law when it was opened in 1958.  Da Rocha was born in Cape Coast, Gold Coast, where he had his secondary education at Adisadel College.  He lectured at the Ghana School of Law for almost two decades before retiring in 1992 as the first Ghanaian Legal Director of Education.  Mountcrest University College in Ghana has instituted a lecture and a Chair in Law and Politics in Da Rocha's memory and honor in recognition to his contribution to the legal fraternity in Ghana.

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*Casely Hayford, a Ghanaian journalist, editor, author, lawyer, educator, and politician who supported pan-African nationalism, died (August 11).

Joseph Ephraim Casely Hayford, or Ekra-Agiman (b. September 29, 1866, Cape Coast, Gold Coast [now Ghana] - d. August 11, 1930, Gold Coast [now Ghana]) was a member of the Fante Anona clan, part of the prominent coastal elite, and also had European ancestry.  His father, Joseph de Graft Hayford (1840-1919), was educated and ordained as a minister in the Methodist church.  He was a prominent figure in Ghanaian politics. His mother was from the Brew dynasty, descended from the 18th-century European trader Richard Brew and his African concubine. Brew settled in this area about 1745.

Casely was one of Hayford's middle names. he adopted Casely Hayford as a non-hyphenated double surname. His brothers were Ernest Hayford, a doctor, and the Reverend Mark Hayford, a minister.

Casely Hayford attended Wesley Boys' High School in Cape Coast, and Fourah Bay College in Freetown, Sierra Leone. While in Freetown, Casely Hayford became an avid follower of Edward Wilmot Blyden, the foremost pan-African figure at the time, who edited Negro, the first explicitly pan-African journal in West Africa.

Upon returning to Ghana, Casely Hayford became a high school teacher. He eventually was promoted to principal at Accra Wesleyan Boys' High School. He was dismissed from his position at the school for his political activism.

In 1885, Hayford began working as a journalist for the Western Echo, which was owned by his maternal uncle James Hutton Brew.  By 1888, Casely Hayford was the editor, and he renamed the paper as the Gold Coast Echo. From 1890 to 1896, he was co-proprietor of the Gold Coast Chronicle. He also wrote articles for the Wesleyan Methodist Times.

In 1893, Casely Hayford traveled to London in order to study as a barrister at the Honourable Society of the Inner Temple, and at Peterhouse, Cambridge.  He was called to the Bar on November 17, 1896.  That year, he returned with his second wife Adelaide to Ghana to private law practice in Cape Coast, Axim, Sekondi and Accra.   He also continued his work as a journalist, editing the Gold Coast Leader.  In 1904, he helped found the Mfantsipim School.  In 1910, he succeeded John Mensah Sarbah as president of the Aborigines Rights Protection Society, the first anti-colonial organization founded in the Gold Coast. 
Casely Hayford wrote several books, primarily as commentary and opposition to British land management acts, such as the Crown Lands Bill of 1897, and the Forest Ordinance of 1911. His view was that African identity and African social stability were inextricably linked to conservation of existing conventions concerning land rights.

While visiting London to protest the Forest Ordinance of 1911, he was part of a group that gave financial assistance to Duse Mohamed Ali to get his African Times and Orient Review off the ground. Others were Francis T. Dove and C. W. Betts from Sierra Leone and Dr. Oguntola Sapara from Lagos.

Casely Hayford was also deeply involved in the political movement for African emancipation. He participated in Booket T. Washington's International Conference on the Negro in 1912, and his correspondence with Washington fostered the pan-African movement in both Africa and the United States.

Casely Hayford’s career in public office began with his nomination to the Legislative Council of the Gold Coast in 1916. As a legislator, he served on various public commissions, and received an MBE (Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire) in the 1919 Birthday Honours for services in aid of the Prince of Wales's Patriotic Fund. In the same year, he formed West Africa’s first nationalist movement, the National Congress of British West Africa, one of the earliest formal organizations working toward African emancipation from colonial rule. He represented the Congress in London in 1920, to demand constitutional reforms from the colonial secretary, and address the League of Nations Union. He was criticized for accepting inadequate concessions from the British. While promoting an African nationalism that demanded unity and cultural awareness among Africans, Hayford advocated only constitutional political reforms within the framework of British colonialism and the British empire. He became the first patron of the West African Students' Union in 1925, and was elected as municipal member for Sekondi in September 1927. The National Congress was dissolved shortly after Casely Hayford's death in 1930.

He published a novel Ethiopia Unbound (1911).  It is one of the first novels in English by an African. It has been cited as the earliest pan-African fiction. The novel is set in both Africa and England. It relies on philosophical debates between an African and his English friend, as well as references to contemporary African events and ancient African history, to provide a context for its exploration of African identity and the struggle for emancipation. 

Casely Hayford first married Beatrice Madeline Pinnock. Their son Archie Casely-Hayford became a barrister, district magistrate and the first Minister of Agriculture and Natural Resources in the First Republic of Ghana.

While in London studying at the Inner Temple and lodging at a hostel for African bachelors in 1893, Hayford met Adelaide Smith, a lady of Sierra Leonean Creole origins (later renamed Adelaide Casely-Hayford). They later married, and she returned with him to the Gold Coast in 1896 after he was received by the bar. She became a prominent writer and established a Freetown girl's vocational school.  Adelaide and Joseph had a daughter, Gladys May Casely-Hayford (1904–1950), who was a teacher, an artist and a poet. Some of her poems were published under the pen name of Aquah Laluah.

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*Austin Amissah, a Ghanaian lawyer, judge and academic who became a judge of the Court of Appeal in Botswana, was born in Accra, Ghana (October 3).

Austin Neeabeohe Evans Amissah (b. October 3, 1930, Accra, Ghana – d. January 20, 2001, London, England) studied at Jesus College, Oxford and was called to the bar as a member of Lincoln's Inn in 1955. He was Director of Public Prosecutions for Ghana from 1962 to 1966, then became a judge of the Court of Appeal from 1966 to 1976; he was seconded from this position to become a professor and Dean of the Law Faculty at the University of Ghana from 1969 to 1974 and chairman of the Ghana Law Reform Commission from 1969 to 1975. He was appointed Attorney General and Minister of Justice in 1979, and later became a judge of the Court of Appeal in Botswana from 1981 to 2001, including a period as President of the Court of Appeal. His writings included Criminal Procedure in Ghana, The Contribution of Courts to Government: a West African view (1981) and Arbitration in Africa (1996). 

He died in London on January 20, 2001.

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*Frank Bernasko, a Ghanaian soldier, lawyer, and politician who was a founder and leader of Ghana's Action Congress Party, was born in Ghana (December 7).

Frank George Bernasko (b. December  7,1930, Ghana – d. June 3, 2010) served as the Commissioner for Agriculture among others in the National Redemption Council (NRC) military government of General I. K. Acheampong. He was also the founder and leader of the Action Congress Party and contested the presidential election in 1979.

Bernasko was born in Ghana. He completed his basic education at Cape Coast in the Central Region and Asante Mampong in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. His secondary education was completed at the Adisadel College also at Cape Coast. He then attended the University of the Gold Coast (now University of Ghana).

Bernasko was an officer in the Ghana army and rose to the rank of Colonel. He was once the officer in charge of education at the Armed Forces Recruit Training Center in Kumasi. He also served as the Garrison Education Officer in Accra. He held the position of Director of Studies at the Ghana Military Academy and Training School at Teshie in Accra. He later became the Director of Education for the Ghana Armed Forces. 

After the coup d'etat of January 13, 1972, which overthrew the Busia government, he was appointed as the Central Regional Commissioner. He later also served as the Commissioner for Agriculture and then the Commissioner for the newly created ministry of Cocoa Affairs. He is also credited with being instrumental in the completion of various projects in the Region including the Regional House of Chiefs, the moving of prisons from the Cape Coast Castle and the Anomabo Fort.  While Commissioner for Agriculture, he supervised the "Operation Feed Yourself" program geared towards ensuring national food self-sufficiency. Bernasko is also credited with the success of the Dawhenya Irrigation Project and the increased uptake of agriculture which led to the first national agricultural show in 1974.

Bernasko was one of the founders of the Action Congress Party, which was formed when the ban on party politics was raised in 1978. He contested the presidential elections in 1979 and came in fourth, polling over 9% of the valid votes cast.

Bernasko appeared before the National Reconciliation Commission to answer allegations of abuse of human rights while serving as Central Regional Commissioner in the NRC military regime. He denied these allegations.

Frank Bernasko took up private legal practice after leaving the NRC government. In later life, he resided in the United Kingdom.  He died on June 3, 2010 at the St. George's Hospital at Tooting, in the south of London.

Bernasko was honored by the chiefs and people of the Central Region during the Oguaa Fetu Afahye in 2008. This was in recognition of his services to the region especially when he was the regional Commissioner in the NRC regime.

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*Arthur Wharton, widely considered to be the first black professional footballer (soccer player) in the world, died in Edlington, Yorkshire, England (December 13).  Though not the first black player outright - the amateurs Robert Walker, of Queen's Park, and Scotland international player Andrew Watson predate him. Wharton was the first black professional and the first to play in the Football League.

Arthur Wharton (b. October 28, 1865, Jamestown, Gold Coast (now Accra, Ghana)  – b. December 13, 1930, Edlington, Yorkshire, England) was born in Jamestown, Gold Coast (now Accra, Ghana).  His father Henry Wharton was Grenadian, while his mother, Annie Florence Egyriba was a member of the Fante Ghanaian royalty. Wharton moved to England in 1882 at age 19, to train as a Methodist missionary,  but soon abandoned this in favor of becoming a full-time athlete.

Wharton was an all-round sportsman - in 1886, he equaled the amateur world record of 10 seconds for the 100-yard sprint in the AAA championship.  He was also a keen cyclist and cricketer,  playing for local teams in Yorkshire and Lancashire.  However, Wharton is best remembered for his exploits as a footballer (soccer player).  While he was not the first mixed-heritage footballer in the United Kingdom — leading amateurs Robert Walker and Scotland international Andrew Watson predate him — he was the first mixed-heritage footballer to turn professional.

Wharton started as an amateur playing as a goalkeeper for Darlington, where he was spotted by Preston North End after playing against them. He joined them as an amateur, and was part of the team that reached the FA Cup semi-finals in 1886-87. Though part of "The Invincibles" of the 1880s, he left Preston in 1888 to concentrate on his running, and thus was not part of the team that subsequently won the Double in 1888-89. 

He returned to football in 1889, joining Rotherham Town, signing as a professional. In 1890 he married Emma Lister (1866-1944) at Rotherham in Yorkshire. By 1891, he was the landlord of the Albert Tavern in Rotherham.

In 1894, he moved to Sheffield United, though he was understudy to regular first-team goalkeeper William "Fatty" Foulke.  During the 1894-95 season, Wharton played three games for Sheffield United, against Leicester Fosse, Linfield and Sunderland -- the latter being a First Division game, making Wharton the first mixed-heritage player to play in the top flight.

In 1895, he left for Stalybridge Rovers,  but after falling out with the management moved to Ashton North End in 1897, where he opened a tobacconist shop in Ashton-under-Lyne. Ashton North End went bankrupt in 1899, and he returned to the Stalybridge Rovers, playing with a young Herbert Chapman, before seeing out his career playing for Stockport County of the Second Division in 1901-02. As well as playing in goal, he would also occasionally feature outfield as a winger. He never won a major honor in the game during his career, nor was he capped at international level.

Having developed a drink problem, Wharton retired from football in 1902 and found employment as a colliery haulage worker at the Yorkshire Main Colliery in Edlington.  By 1911, he was employed as a collier and living in a rented room in Moorthorpe, West Yorkshire.  On his death in 1930 he was buried in an unmarked pauper's grave. The grave was given a headstone in 1997 after a campaign by anti-racism campaigners Football Unites, Racism Divides.  In 2003, Wharton was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of the impact he made on the game. A campaign to have a statue erected in Darlington as well as in Rotherham to acknowledge Wharton's achievements gained wide support within the professional game. In 2012, a small statue of Wharton was presented to Sepp Blatter at the headquarters of FIFA, where it will be on permanent display. On October 16, 2014, a statue honoring Wharton was unveiled at St. George's Park National Football Centre. 

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*Gloria Amon Nikoi, the Ghanaian foreign minister in 1979 under the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) government of Ghana, was born.

Gloria Amon Nikoi (b. 1930, Ghana) was the Ghanaian foreign minister in 1979 under the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council (AFRC) government. As of 2007, she was the first woman to hold this position. She also became a career diplomat.

Amon Nikoi was the Deputy Chief of Mission to the United Nations from 1969 to 1974.  Amon Nikoi later worked as a senior official in the Ghanaian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

After the military coup of June 4, 1979, which overthrew the Supreme Military Council  government, Amon Nikoi was made foreign minister for about four months in the AFRC government of Flight lieutenant Jerry Rawlings. This ended on September 24, 1979, when the Third Republic under Hilla Limann's People's National Party government was inaugurated.

Amon Nikoi became the Chairperson of the Bank for Housing and Construction, a Ghanaian bank, in 1981. She also became a director of the African Development Bank (AfDB). She was the first Chairperson of the Council of the Ghana Stock Exchange when it was first inaugurated on November 12, 1990.

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*Kenneth Dadzie, a Ghanaian diplomat who served twice as the Ghanaian High Commissioner to the Court of St. James (Great Britain) and who was also the Secretary General of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) between 1986 and 1994, was born.

Kenneth K. S. Dadzie (b. 1930 — d. 1995, London, England) joined the diplomatic service of the Gold Coast in 1952. He continued with the service after Ghana became an independent nation in 1957. He held several positions in the service and was seconded to senior positions within the United Nations Secretariat both in Geneva and New York.  He also served as Ghana's Permanent representative to the United Nations Office in Geneva. During that tenure, he also served as Ghana's ambassador to Austria and Switzerland.

Dadzie was appointed by Jerry Rawlings as Ghana's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom during the era of the Provisional National Defence Council in 1982 and continued in this position until the end of 1985. After retiring from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 1994, He was appointed by the Rawlings government as Ghana's High Commissioner to the United Kingdom once again.

Dadzie became the Director-General for Development and International Economic Cooperation within UNCTAD between 1978 and 1982. He became the fifth Secretary-General of UNCTAD on January 1, 1986. He was the first African to serve in this capacity. He is credited by UNCTAD as having been influential during his time in office in securing the adoption of the Final Act of UNCTAD VII in Geneva which helped establish consensus on international development cooperation thereby breaking through the barriers of the North-South divide. He was also instrumental in the organization adopting a "New Partnership for Development" at UNCTAD VIII in 1992 in Cartagena, Colombia.

Kenneth Dadzie died in London while still serving as the Ghana High Commissioner to the United Kingdom. A special meeting of the Economic and Social Council was held during which tributes were paid to his immense contribution to the United Nations and especially to UNCTAD.

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*Emmanuel Noi Omaboe, an economist, statesman and chief, was born at Amanokrom in the Akuapim Northern District of the Gold Coast.

Emmanuel Noi Omaboe (b. 1930 - d. 2005), was educated at Accra Academy, University College of the Gold Coast and the London School of Economics.  He returned to the University College of Ghana as an Economics Research Fellow where he lectured in statistics. In 1959, he was appointed Deputy Government Statistician, a post he held until 1966. He then took the post of Chairman of the Economic Committee of the National Liberation Council.  He retired from public service in 1969 to head up a private consultancy firm. He was enstooled "Omanhene" (Chief) of Amanokrom and "Gyasehene" of Akuapem in 1975.

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*J. H. Frimpong-Ansah (b. October 22, 1930 – d. April 21, 1999) was an economist and a Governor of the Bank of Ghana.  He was Governor of the Bank of Ghana from March 8, 1968 to February 28, 1973.

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Ivory Coast

*Marie-Therese Houphouet-Boigny, the First Lady of the Ivory Coast from 1960 to 1993 known as "Africa's Jackie", was born in Abidjan, Ivory Coast,, French West Africa, was born (June 23). 

Marie-Thérèse Houphouët-Boigny (b. June 23, 1930, Abidjan, Ivory Coast, French West Africa) was the First Lady of Ivory Coast from 1960 to 1993. Her husband was Felix Houphouet-Boigny, the first President of Cote d'Ivoire.

She was born Marie-Thérèse Brou on June 23, 1930 in a suburb of Abidjan, Ivory Coast, French West Africa.  She was one of her parents' six children. When Brou was 16 years old, she and nineteen other Ivorian girls were chosen to attend private school in France. While living in France, she met and married her husband, Félix Houphouët-Boigny, when she was 21-years old. Houphouët-Boigny was more than 25 years older than her.

Houphouët-Boigny caught the eye of the media during a 1962 visit to the Kennedy White House, and was dubbed "Africa's Jackie" by a starstruck media.

In 1987, First Lady Houphouët-Boigny, founded the N'Daya International Foundation dedicated to improving the health, welfare, and education of children in Africa. As the Foundation's president, she led numerous projects in support of children. In 1990, she helped create and produce a cartoon, Kimboo, to offer cartoon heroes to African children.

Marie-Thérèse was the first lady of the Ivory Coast for 33 years, until her husband's death in 1993.

Félix and Marie-Thérèse did not have any biological children, but adopted three children together.

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Kenya

*Hulda Stumpf, an American Christian missionary who was a vocal opponent of female genital mutilation, was murdered in her home near the Africa Inland Mission station in Kijabe, Kenya (January 3).

Hulda Jane Stumpf (b. January 10, 1867, Big Run, Pennsylvania – b. January 3, 1930, Kijabe, Kenya) was an American Christian missionary who was murdered in her home near the Africa Inland Mission station in Kijabe, Kenya, where she worked as a secretary and administrator.  Stumpf may have been killed because of the mission's opposition to female genital mutilation (FGM, also known as female circumcision). Kenya's main ethnic group, the Kikuyu, regarded FGM as an important rite of passage, and there had been protests against the missionary churches in Kenya because they opposed it. The period is known within Kenyan historiography as the female circumcision controversy.

Stumpf is reported to have taken a firm stand against FGM in the Kijabe Girls' Home, which she helped to run. Some apparently unusual injuries on her body suggested to the governor of Kenya at the time that, before or after smothering her, her killer(s) had genitally mutilated her, although a court concluded that there was no evidence she had been killed because of her opposition to FGM.

Stumpf was born in Big Run, Pennsylvania, to J. R. Stumpf and his wife, and was raised in Indiana, Pennsylvania, one of four children. Her father owned Indiana's first five-and-dime, located on the 700 block of Philadelphia Street. He was one of the first local people to own a steam car – in 1906 only six cars were registered in the town – and in July 1901 began using it to make deliveries to his customers.

Stumpf attended business school, then New York Music School for two years. After college she worked as a clerk and stenographer, then taught shorthand at Indiana Business College.

In October 1906, Stumpf applied for a position as a missionary with the Africa Inland Mission (AIM), describing herself in her first letter as "forty years of age ... and not very rugged looking," but in good health. She wrote on the application form that she wanted to work in Africa because of an "earnest desire, believing the time to be short, when He shall appear, and the need in foreign fields seems to be great."

In November 1906 she told the AIM that she was trying to move away from denominationalism: "There is only one form of church government, as I understand the term, and that is based upon the scriptures, and the scriptures alone, leaving out man's notion as to how a church should be governed." From May 1907, she studied for two months at the Moody Bible Institute in Chicago in preparation for her missionary work. Her college file described her as "direct, businesslike, and kind."

Stumpf sailed from New York in November 1907 on the SS Friedrich der Grobe, arriving in Gibraltar on November 12, and in Naples on November 15. In December, she arrived in Kijabe, Kenya, where she was assigned to work as a secretary for the head of the Africa Inland Mission.

Stumpf remained in Africa for most of the rest of her life, helping to run the Kijabe mission and writing articles for its monthly magazine, Inland Africa. She lived for many years in the two-room cottage in which she died, 300 yards from the mission building.  Her last visit to the United States was in 1925. By the time of her death the Africa Inland Mission had 45 mission stations in East Africa, 225 missionaries and 1,000 African teachers.

Stumpf – irascible and hard of hearing, at least toward the end of her life – was a typical missionary woman, viewed by African society as having little status because she was an unmarried woman, and viewed the same way within the mission because of her relatively junior role.  Nevertheless, as an agent of Western culture Stumpf represented a significant challenge to daily life in Africa.

One of her duties was to help administer the Kijabe Girls' Home and Training School, where girls were taught literacy and agricultural skills, mathematics, sewing and Bible lessons. The school was known locally as Ishai because it had an iron roof, unlike others with grass roofs; ishai meant iron sheet and also place of shelter. It was one of several girls' homes and schools run by the Africa Inland Mission.

The relationship between the missionaries and the Kikuyu members of the AIM's congregation was not one of equals.  A letter Stumpf wrote in June 1916, asking that only plain dresses be sent from the United States for the Kikuyu girls, without "tucks, ruffles, piping, etc." Apparently the previous year dresses had been received by another mission that were regarded as too good for the Kikuyu, and they had been given to missionaries' children instead. The concern, Stumpf wrote (possibly relaying objections, rather than expressing her own), was that the Kikuyu would be "dressed better than white children."

Female genital mutilation (FGM) was regarded by the Kikuyu, Kenya's main ethnic group, as an important rite of passage between childhood and adulthood. The procedures include removal of the clitoris (clitoridectomy),  removal of the inner labia (excision), and removal of all the external genitalia and the suturing of the wound (infibulation).

The Kikuyu practised excision and sometimes infibulation, calling it irua for female and male circumcision.  A memorandum by the Church of Scotland Mission described it in or around 1929:

Female circumcision, as it exists among the Kikuyu, is an operation which varies in severity, some sections of the tribe practising a more drastic form than others.  It involves the removal of not only the Clitoris, but also the labia minora and half the labia majora, together with th surrounding tissue, resulting in the permanent mutiliation, affecting the woman's natural functions of matuation, menstruation, and parturition, with disastrous results not only to the birth rate, but also to the physique and vitality of the tribe. 

The medical issues apart, the missionaries objected to the sexual nature of the ceremonies.  For the Kikuyu, the ceremonies and procedure were a vital ethnic ritual. Unexcised women (irugu) were viewed as unmarriageable outcasts.  The Times of London reported in February 1930: "The young girls represent an economic asset to the parents and, in the eyes of the tribe, their value is completely lost unless the rites are performed. In fact, the older Kikuyu believe that no woman may bear children unless the ceremonies have been observed." There were rumors among the Kikuyu that the British wanted to stop irua so that they could marry the unexcised girls and acquire Kenyan land.

The African Inland Mission began campaigning against FGM in 1914, and in 1916 the Church of Scotland Mission said it would excommunicate African Christians who practiced it. The Kenya Missionary Council was the first organization known to call it mutilation.  Marion Scott Stevenson, a Church of Scotland missionary, coined the term "sexual mutilation of women" for the practice in 1929, and the Missionary Council followed suit. That year African teachers working in CSM and AIM schools were asked to sign an oath renouncing both FGM and membership of the Kikuyu Central Association,  the representative body of the Kikuyu people. Ninety percent of the African congregations chose to leave rather than swear the oath. The issue split the Kikuyu Christian community into kirore (abolitionists) and karinga (traditionalists).

Stumpf took one of the firmest stands against FGM at the Kijabe Girls' School.  In May 1927, Stumpf described what happened to one teacher who had had FGM performed on his daughter. 

"About three years ago Muchai along with many others was prohibited from teaching and was excommunicated forever, the sentence read, unless he was willing to confess his wrong and swear allegiance to the white man and his rulings. The confession was sorrow for allowing his daughter to be circumcised."

On September 30, 1929, Stumpf wrote in her diary: "Crisis in native church over female circumcision," and on November 2, referring to the oath the AIM had asked teachers to swear.  "The past week was spent largely in prayer.  Nearly all teachers refused to sign the petition re circumcision."  On December 29, 1929, four men were arrested outside the Kijabe mission's church for singing from the Muthirigu, a series of protest dance songs that thousands of Kikuyu began performing outside mission homes and schools. 

Stumpf's body was discovered in her home on the morning of January 3, 1930, by Kakoi, a

man who worked for her.  She was buried nearby two days later.  Another missionary, Helen Virginia Blakeslee, an osteopath, wrote in 1956 that she had examined Stumpf's body shortly after Stumpf's death, and that there was no circumcision-style wounds.

Blakeslee wrote that the death shook the local community and that the Kikuyu elders were horrified by it.  African soldiers stood guard outside the mission and the girls were moved out of the school to live with other missionaries.  An inquest opened on January 20, 1930, it concluded that Stumpf had died during the night of January 2-3 and recorded asphyxiation as the cause of death.  Medical evidence presented at the inquest showed that there were peculiar injuries to Stumpf's body.  Edward Grigg, the governor of Kenya, telegraphed the British Colonial Office on the first day of the inquest to tell them:  :Medical evidence shows that Miss Stumpf was circumcised in brutal manner and died under the operation.  It is clear that circumcision song and dance is being used to work those participating into a dangerous fanaticism."

 The Times reported in February 1930:

The medical evidence discounted any theory of rape but inclined to the view that certain unusual wounds were due to the deliberate mutilation such as might have been caused by the use of a knife employed by native [sic] in the form of tribal operation.

The significance of this lies in the fact that for many months past certain missions have been making a stand against this tribal ceremony with the result that there have been conflicts with natives, many of whom are most hostile, while agitators have been attempting to make political capital out of the situation.

A verdict was delivered of willful murder by person or persons unknown, though a member of the Mkamba ethnic group had already been arrested.  According to the African Inland Mission, the British government had for the previous ten years fingerprinted all black Africans employed in the area by white people.  The man's fingerprints had been found on a clock and lamp in Stumpf's home.  He was acquitted by the Supreme Court in Nairobi on November 26, 1930.  The court found that there was an innocent explanation for the presence of the fingerprints -- he might have entered the house after the murder but before the police arrived -- and concluded that there was no evidence that Stumpf had been killed over her opposition to FGM. 

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*Filemona Indire, a politician who served as a Member of the Parliament of Kenya from 1983 to 1988, was born Vihiga, Kenya Colony (March).

Filemona F. Indire (b. March 1930, Vihiga, Kenya Colony) was Kenya's ambassador to Russia (then called, the Soviet Union) in the 1960s during Kenya's first president Jomo Kenyatta's tenure. After that, he served as a lecturer at the University of Nairobi.

Indire was an influential Kenyan Quaker, having served as Chairman of the Friend's World Committee for Consultation Africa Section, a Quaker organization that works to communicate between all parts of  the Quakerism.  He was also the Chairman of the National Council for Science and Technology in Nairobi, Kenya. 

Indire married Abigail Indire, one of the first of 10 African-Kenyan girls to attend high school in Kenya's history. She joined what was then called African Girls High School, but is now known as Alliance Girls High School. She helped lay and pave the pathway for what has become an esteemed and storied institution in Kenyan education.

Indire wrote several books including A Comprehensive High School Curriculum Proposal for Reviewing and Revising the Program of Chavakali Secondary School, Maragoli, Kenya (1962) This study centered on the development of a curriculum which would assist in adequately meeting the needs of high school students in Western Kenya. 

Another study that Indire wrote, was a series of 15 books in collaboration with John W. Hanson, Secondary Level Teachers: Supply and Demand in Kenya.  The study, published in 1971, was a report on the supply of secondary level teachers in Kenya. It focused on the problem of forecasting the likely demand for non-Kenyan personnel for staffing secondary level institutions up to the year 1975, and it attempted to analyze the very real problem (at the time) of teacher supply within the context of the social and economic conditions of Kenya during the period leading up to the mid-1970s. Other topics examined included the projected expansion of other types of secondary-level education, programs for the preparation of teachers, major factors in teacher recruitment and retention, projected gaps in the teaching force, priorities in the provision and use of expatriate teachers, and recommendations of primary concern for the Kenyan authorities of the day.

Indire was also a member of the Commission of Inquiry into the Education System of Kenya commonly referred to as the Davy Koech Commission.  The commission was established on May 15, 1998, by the president of Kenya at the time, Daniel Arap Moi.

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*Grace Ogot, the first Anglophone female Kenyan writer to be published, was born in Asembo, in the district of Nyanza, Kenya (May 15).

Grace Emily Ogot (née Akinyi; b. May 15, 1930 – d. March 18, 2015, Nairobi, Kenya), a Kenyan author, nurse, journalist, politician and diplomat, was born in Asembo, in the district of Nyanza, Kenya.  Together with Charity Waciuma, Ogot was the first Anglophone female Kenyan writer to be published. She was one of the first Kenyan members of parliament and she became an assistant minister in the government of President Daniel arap Moi.

Ogot was born Grace Emily Akinyi to a Christian family on May 15, 1930 in Asembo, in the district of Nyanza, Kenya – a village highly populated by the predominantly Christian Luo ethnic group. Her father, Joseph Nyanduga, was one of the first men in the village of Asembo to obtain a Western education. He converted early on to the Anglican Church, and taught at the Church Missionary Society’s Ng'iya Girls’ School. From her father, she learned the stories of the Old Testament and it was from her grandmother that Ogot learned the traditional folk tales of the area from which she would later draw inspiration.

Ogot attended the Ng'iya Girls' School and Butere High School throughout her youth. From 1949 to 1953, she trained as a nurse at the Nursing Training Hospital in Uganda.  She later worked in London, England, at St. Thomas Hospital for Mothers and Babies. She returned to the African nursing profession in 1958, working at Maseno Hospital, run by the Church Missionary Society in Kisumu County, Kenya. Following this, Ogot worked at Makerere University College in Student Health Services. She was the very first female from Kenya to be published in English.

In addition to her experience in healthcare, Ogot gained experience in multiple different areas, working for the BBC Overseas Service as a script-writer and announcer on the program London Calling East and Central Africa, operating a prominent radio program in the Luo language, working as an officer of community development in Kisumu County and as a public relations officer for the Air India Corporation of East Africa.

In 1975, Ogot worked as a Kenyan delegate to the general assembly of the United Nations. Subsequently, in 1976, she became a member of the Kenyan delegation to UNESCO.  That year, she chaired and helped found the Writers' Association of Kenya.  In 1983, she became one of only a handful of women to serve as a member of parliament and the only woman assistant minister in the cabinet of then President Daniel arap Moi.

In 1959, Grace Ogot married history professor Bethwell Allan Ogot,  a Luo from Gem Location, and later became the mother of four children. Her proclivity for storytelling and her husband's interest in the oral tradition and history of the Luo peoples would later be combined in her writing career.  Ogot died on March 18, 2015, in Nairobi, Kenya.

In 1962, Grace Ogot read her short story "A Year of Sacrifice" at a conference on African Literature at Makerere University in Uganda. After discovering that there was no other work presented or displayed from East African writers, Ogot became motivated to publish her works, which she subsequently did both in the Luo language and in English. "A Year of Sacrifice" appeared in print as Ogot's first published work in the African journal Black Orpheus in 1963. In 1964, her short story "The Rain Came" was published as part of the collection Modern African Stories, co-edited by Es'kia Mphahlele, who had organized the earlier mentioned conference on African Literature at Makerere University in Uganda in 1962. "The Rain Came" was a reworked version of "A Year of Sacrifice" but considerably shortened and with a different beginning and ending. Also in 1964, the short story "Ward Nine" was published in the journal Transition.

Ogot's first novel The Promised Land, set in the 1930s, was published in 1966 and focused on Luo emigration and the problems that arise through migration. Her main protagonists emigrate from Nyanza to northern Tanzania, in search of fertile land and wealth. The story also focused on themes of tribal hatred, materialism, and traditional notions of femininity and wifely duties. 1968 saw the publishing of Land Without Thunder, a collection of short stories set in ancient Luoland. Ogot's descriptions, literary tools, and storylines in Land Without Thunder offer a valuable insight into Luo culture in pre-colonial East Africa. Her other works include The Strange Bride, The Graduate, The Other Woman and The Island of Tears.

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Liberia

*A United States and League of Nations commission reported that Liberia still had slavery (March 8).

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Madagascar


*****

*Richard Andriamanjato, a Malagasy politician who became the President of the National Assembly of Madagascar, was born (July 31).

After leaving education, Richard Mahitsison Andriamanjato (b. July 31, 1930,  –  d. May 16, 2013) became a Pastor. He also became involved with the nationalist cause. From 1950 to 1957, he studied in France. In 1957, he attended the Bandung Conference and became the leading figure in the section of the nationalist movement opposed to Philibert Tsiranana. He also succeeded the popular nationalist figure Pastor Ravelojaona as pastor of the Ambohitantely Temple in Antananarivo.

Andriamanjato soon joined the Council of the Protestant Federation of Madagascar.  He also became the President of the Council of the Churches of Africa, was a member of the World Council of Churches of Geneva and a director of the Christian Institute for Peace. 

Andriamanjato also became a communist.  In 1958, he founded the Party of the Independence Congress of Madagascar (in French: Parti du Congrès de l'indépendence de Madagascar, in Malagasy: Antoko'ny Kongresi'ny Fahaleovantenan'i Madagasikara or AKFM), which developed links with the French Communist Party and acted as the main opposition for more than a decade. In 1959, he was elected Mayor of Antananarivo. 

In 1972, Andriamanjato supported Didier Ratsiraka, and in 1976 he led the AKFM into the National Front for the Defence of the Revolution, the government coalition. A supporter of Albert Zafy, he split from Ratsiraka and the AKFM in 1989 to form the Party of the Independence Congress of Madagascar - Renewal.  From 1991 to 1993, he was co-president of the transitional Committee for Economic and Social Recovery along with Manandafy Rakotonirina;  in 1993 he became the President of the National Assembly of Madagascar,  serving in that position until 1998.  He stood for his party in the November 1996 presidential election and took fifth place, receiving 4.94% of the votes cast.

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Malawi

(Nyasaland)

*Giddes Chalamada, a Malawian acoustic artist was born in Chiradzulu, Nyasaland. 

Gidesi Chalamanda (b. 1930, Chiradzulu, Nyasaland), most commonly known as "Giddes", was one of Malawi's legendary artists.  In the lyrics to his song "Buffalo soldier", he mentions that if he had enough money he would travel to America. In 2016, with the help of fans, friends and Malawian organizations both in Malawi and in the Malawian Diaspora, he was able to achieve this dream when he traveled to the United States with musicians Davis ndi Edgar.  He held a concert at the Black Rock Center for the Arts in the "Pulse of Malawi" concert which celebrated Malawian independence day in Germantown, Maryland. He was also a panelist at the panel discussions held by the Malawian Diaspora organizations.  During this visit, Chalamanda also played at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. where his music was archived. He also held a concert at the state theater in Indiana, a state mentioned in his original song.

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Henry Chipembere, a Malawian nationalist who played a significant role in bringing independence from colonial rule to Malawi, was born in Kayoyo in Ntchisi in the Central Region of Nyasaland (August 5). 

Henry Masauko Blasius Chipembere (b. August 5, 1930, Kayoyo, Nyasaland – b. September 24, 1975, Southern California) was born in Kayoyo in Ntchisi (then in the Kota Kota district) in the Central Region of Nyasaland (now Malawi). Chipembere's father, Habil Matthew Chipembere,  was a teacher from a prosperous Nyanja family studying for the priesthood in the African Anglican church. His mother gave him the name "Masauko", which means "suffering" or "troubles", because it had been a difficult pregnancy. He was educated in Nyasaland and later, after some time at Goromonzi secondary school in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), at Fort Hare College in South Africa, from which he graduated in the early 1950s. For a brief period thereafter, he worked in the colonial civil service as District Assistant, serving first at Domasi in the Southern Province, under the District Commissioner, then at Fort Johnston (now Mangochi) and finally at Dedza in the Central Province.

On December 30, 1954, Chipembere attended an informal meeting in Blantyre, Nyasaland,  with like-minded young Nyasas, including Kanyama Chiume,  who decided to ally themselves with the Nyasaland African Congress (NAC), then a rather moribund political organization dominated by an earlier generation demoralized by its failure to prevent the federation, in 1953, of Nyasaland with bordering Southern and Northern Rhodesia.

In 1955, in order to provide a safety valve for African political self-expression, the Colonial Office agreed that the number of seats reserved for Africans on the Legislative Council should increase from three to five. These African members would be nominated by Provincial Councils.  Although the Provincial Councils were largely composed of chiefs, their members were receptive to popular wishes, and they nominated Congress members or supporters to the Legislative Council. In March 1956, Henry Chipembere resigned his civil service post in order to stand for election. He was elected by an overwhelming majority to represent the southern province, along with Chiume for the northern province, Ralph Chinyama,  N. D. Kwenje and Dunstan Chijozi (who was a sympathizer with, but not a member of, the NAC). The Council also included eleven official government members, headed by the Governor, and six non-official European members (so-called unofficials).

Chipembere and Chiume, particularly, electrified the country with their audacious and aggressive participation in the Council. The existing members, mostly European, had conducted proceedings with traditional British decorum and restraint, and presumably expected the new members to behave similarly; but these two asked awkward questions and made radical proposals which unsettled and embarrassed the existing membership. Shortly thereafter, when it was decided to publish transcripts of the Council's proceedings, the resulting publication, Hansard, reportedly became a bestseller, particularly among young Nyasas who were totally unaccustomed to seeing others of their kind challenging authority so openly. Chipembere later said that his behavior here was inspired by Hastings Kamuzu Banda,  whose speeches in London five years earlier against the federation of Nyasaland with Southern and Northern Rhodesia had been similarly daring and inflammatory. In April 1955, at the 11th annual conference of the NAC, Chipembere and Chiume proposed secession from the Federation as official policy.

In November 1956, Chipembere wrote to Hastings Banda, then in quasi-retirement in the Gold Coast (later Ghana), asking for his support in getting two African Members of Parliament (MPs), Manoah Chirwa and Clement Kumbikano, to resign from the Federal Assembly in Rhodesia, something which they had allegedly undertaken to do once they had officially protested against federation in the assembly on Congress's behalf. Chipembere felt that their participation in the Federal Assembly weakened the Nyasas' case for seceding from the Federation, which they had been adamantly and overwhelmingly opposed to in the first place. Banda, who had always regarded participation in the Federal Assembly as a betrayal, temporized and counselled patience, but Chipembere and Chiume nevertheless, on December 31, 1956, put a motion before Congress proposing that Chirwa and Kumbikano should be ordered to step down. In an eleven-hour debate, however, their motion was defeated; in part, it is thought, because of the opposition of older members of Congress who regarded Chipembere and Chiume as too young and inexperienced to be taken seriously. It was probably this that determined the younger element to ask Banda, an older and highly respected man who had spent his entire adult life away from his native Nyasaland, to return and lead the campaign for secession (and ultimately independence).

In March 1957, T. D. T. Banda, a leading member of Congress supported by the younger element, went to the Gold Coast to participate in that country's independence celebrations, and while he was there visited Banda in order to try to persuade him. Banda was still reluctant, and two weeks later Chipembere wrote him a letter repeating the request. Later that year, partly in response to further moves by Roy Welensky,  the prime minister of the Federation, towards attaining dominion status for the Federation (which would make secession very much harder to achieve), Banda finally agreed to return, on various conditions which essentially gave him autocratic powers in Congress. (Banda also threw his weight behind the demand for the resignation of the two Federal MPs, which happened shortly thereafter).

In June 1958, Chipembere, Dunduzu Chisiza and Chief Kutanja, joined with Banda in meeting the Colonial Secretary, Lennox-Boyd, in London to discuss a new constitution for Nyasaland (one which had already been roundly rejected by Nyasaland's governor, Robert Armitage). Lennox-Boyd took note of their views but said he did not think Congress represented Nyasa African opinion.

The following month, on July 6, 1958, Banda returned to Nyasaland after an absence of 42 years. At a meeting of the Congress in Nkhata Bay on August 1, 1958, Banda was named President of the Congress and nominated Chipembere as Treasurer General. The campaign for independence began in earnest. Chipembere and most other leading Congress activists were in their late 20s or early 30s, but Banda was over 60. As well as the age difference there was disagreement about Banda’s role. The activists saw Banda as a figurehead, but he saw himself as the leader of Congress and expected their obedience. Banda appointed Chipembere as Treasurer of Congress, Chiume as Publicity Secretary,  Dunduzu Chisiza as Secretary-general and he also appointed four other young radicals to the party’s Executive Committee, ignoring older moderates. However, he made it clear that he regarded his appointees as subordinates, not colleagues.

Chipembere, Chiume and the two Chisiza brothers (Dunduzu and Yatuta) played a critical role in organizing Congress as a political power and creating support for Banda. Banda hitherto had been known mostly only by the intellectual element in the country, although there was a vague awareness of his story among many of the people. By their proselytizing, however, the "Young Turks" created an almost messianic image for their new leader and elicited a tremendous response from the people. They toured the country speaking to crowds assembled by the newly energized Congress. In quite a few cases, this resulted in unrest and rioting.

In January 1958, Banda presented Congress proposals for an African majority in the Legislative Council to the governor, Robert Armitage.  As this would have led to a demand for withdrawal from the Federation, Armitage refused. This breakdown in talks led to Congress demands for more violent anti-government action, and leading Congress activists made increasingly inflammatory statements. On January 24 and 25, 1959, there was a meeting of Congress held without Banda near Blantyre, which became known as the "bush meeting". Allegedly, the Young Turks discussed using violence and intimidation as a means of furthering their push for independence.  The Governor received reports from police informers, who claimed Congress planned the indiscriminate killing of Europeans and Asians, and of its African opponents, the so-called "murder plot". There is no evidence that a murder plot existed, but the refusal of Banda or other Congress leaders to condemn the violent actions of Congress members gave it some plausibility. Armitage prepared for mass arrests and, on  February 20, troops from Rhodesia were flown into Nyasaland. On February 20 and in the days following, both Chipembere and Yatuta Chisiza made a number of speeches. On February 20, 1959 itself, Chipembere addressed a crowd at Ndirande near Blantyre and the crowd threw stones at passing motorists. Other disturbances followed, and the police or troops fired on some of these, leading to four deaths.

Finally, on March 3, 1959, Armitage declared a State of Emergency over the whole of the protectorate and arrested Banda, other members of the Congress executive committee and  over a hundred local party officials. The Nyasaland African Congress was banned the next day. Rather than calming the situation immediately, in the emergency that followed fifty-one Africans were killed and many more were wounded. Many of the arrests were made early in the morning of March 3, 1959, and the sweep was known as Operation Sunrise, and by the end of the day most principal Congress leaders had been arrested and detained. Some were released very quickly, but 72 prominent detainees, including Banda, were flown to Southern Rhodesia. Chipembere, together with Banda and the Chisiza brothers, was imprisoned in Gwelo (now Gweru), in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). These senior members of Congress were housed in the European wing of the jail, separate from the lower-level detainees. There, Chipembere studied history, politics, and philosophy, and he and the other Congress inmates, including Banda, discussed their plans for an independent Nyasaland. However, there were some tensions: Banda became concerned with Chipembere’s volatile temper, and Banda’s increasingly authoritarian attitudes alarmed his three fellow prisoners.

The mood in Britain, meanwhile, had long been moving toward relinquishing the colonies. Banda was released from prison in April 1960 and was almost immediately invited to London for talks at Lancaster House aimed at bringing about constitutional changes. Chipembere remained in prison, though he, along with others, was moved from Gwelo to Kanjedza near Blantyre in Nyasaland. In August 1960, while governor Robert Armitage was on leave and the more sympathetic Glyn Jones was Acting Governor, Banda began pressing for the release of Chipembere and the Chisiza brothers. There was some resistance; many Europeans including Iain Macleod, the Colonial Secretary, regarded these three as violent extremists, and the month of August had seen further violent incidents. On September 27, however, they were grudgingly freed, being among the last detainees to be released. They went immediately to Kota Kota, where the annual Malawi Congress Party (the new name of the Nyasaland African Congress) conference was being held. There, Banda introduced them to the assembled but unsuspecting conference, wearing the red gowns of the ‘prison graduate’ and ‘camp finalist’. Chipembere was reinstated as Treasurer General of the party. Banda was made Life President of the party.

Despite Banda's release, tension in Nyasaland remained at a high level throughout 1960. In December, Chipembere delivered a speech in Rumphi in which he said, referring to a European member of the Legislative Council, "Give me the living body of Blackwood to tear to pieces. I'll do the job in two minutes". He was tried for sedition as a result of this speech and sentenced to three years in prison, and served two years in Zomba jail before his release in January 1963. While he was imprisoned, his father, by now Archdeacon in the Malawi Anglican church, assumed Chipembere's seat on the Legislative Council. Because he was in prison, Chipembere was unable to participate in the constitutional talks which brought about a general election, with full adult suffrage, in August 1961.

According to some reports, Banda deliberately avoided securing Chipembere's early release, as he had allegedly undertaken to do, because he feared the young firebrand would disrupt progress towards full independence. The new Governor, Glyn Smallwood Jones was willing to discuss Chipembere’s early release and Dunduzu Chisiza urged Banda to do so. Nevertheless, Chipembere served much of his sentence, although in the end, Banda did secure his early release.

On February 1, 1963, Banda and his cabinet were sworn in, and the recently released Chipembere was given the post of Minister of Local Government. Shortly afterwards, Banda sent Chipembere, together with Chiume, on a two-month course of study in America, partly, it is thought, to allow the excitement generated by Chipembere's release to die down, and partly to avoid the risk of further disturbances during the run-up to full independence. This did not stop him for long, however. By June, Chipembere was making speeches at Port Herald (now Nsanje) and Chikwawa inciting more violence against “capricorns” and “stooges”.

Malawi achieved independence finally on July 6, 1964.

Shortly after independence, on August 19, 1964, Chipembere departed to Canada for a conference. Meanwhile, back in Malawi, cabinet members including Orton Chirwa, Chiume, Yatuta Chisiza and others (with the notable exception of John Tembo, Minister of Finance), were growing restive under the autocratic hand of Banda. They had several grievances against him, including that he had too much power (he was in charge of six different ministries, for example) and that he treated his cabinet with too little respect even in public. Matters came to a head on August 24, when they presented him with what they called the Kuchawe Manifesto (because it had been written at the Kuchawe Inn on Zomba plateau), a letter containing a list of demands. On September 7, Banda removed three of his cabinet members (Orton Chirwa, Kanyama Chiume, and Augustine Bwanausi) and Rose Chibambo, a Parliamentary Secretary.  Three other cabinet members (Yatuta Chisiza, Willie Chokani and John Msonthi) resigned on the same day, causing the Cabinet Crisis of 1964.  On September 8, parliament began to debate a motion of confidence in Banda and his policies. Chipembere arrived back from Canada that evening. After failing to persuade Banda to postpone the remainder of the debate, Chipembere, in sympathy with his colleagues, resigned his cabinet position on September 8 and retired to the back benches. His speech on the second day of the debate failed to sway the parliament, which, moved by Banda's oratory, gave him a unanimous vote of confidence. Efforts to reinstate some of the ministers failed, and on September 26 and 27, a meeting planned by Chipembere in Blantyre was banned, ostensibly because he had not obtained police permission. There were clashes with Malawi Youth League members both in Blantyre and in Zomba. Chipembere left for Fort Johnson (now Mangochi), where popular support for him was strong.

The following week was tense throughout the country, with government employees in Zomba going on strike and senior civil servants (almost all Europeans) staying home in fear of violence. On September 30, Banda signed an order restricting Chipembere to within four miles of his home in Malindi. On October 25, Banda claimed at an MPC meeting that the ex-ministers were plotting to overthrow him by force. Chipembere left his house on 28 October to go into hiding, following which Banda ordered his arrest, “…alive if possible, but if not alive then any other way.” Chipembere later claimed that expatriate civil servants and security officers had turned Banda against him and his colleagues.

On the night of February 12, 1965, Chipembere together with about 200 local supporters moved into Fort Johnston. They attacked the police station, killing the wife and child of a policeman there, destroying phone installations, both there and at the post office, and removing guns and ammunition from the police armory. They proceeded in the direction of the capital, Zomba, but found that at Liwonde Ferry the ferry vessel was secured on the farther side of the Shire River. A detachment of the Malawi army caught up with them at noon the next day, but all except one escaped into the bush. This ended Chipembere's attempt at a coup d'état. Many of Chipembere's supporters were Yao, and Banda promoted the recruitment of members of the rival Lomwe group as paramilitary police to contain them, stirring up ethnic tensions.

In March 1965, Chipembere, through Governor General Glyn Jones, made overtures to Banda to proclaim an amnesty in exchange for his agreement to leave the country. He also approached the United States ambassador to Malawi, Sam Gilstrap, asking him to arrange a university place for him in the United States. On April 26, with the help of both Glyn Jones and United States interests, as well as the loan of an aircraft from the British South Africa Police, and with Banda's knowledge, he was secretly moved to Zomba, thence to Salisbury (in Southern Rhodesia), London, New York and California. Chipembere later claimed that an amnesty had been promised for his followers, but many of them were detained without trial. A few continued raids on government targets for some time, leading to the retaliatory burning of local villages and the public hanging of one of the leaders in January 1966.

Chipembere spent the rest of his life in exile. He remained in California until August 1966 when he left for Tanzania, then ruled by Julius Nyerere and his African-Socialist Tanzanian African National Union (TANU) party. In Dar es Salaam, he taught at Kivukoni College. In early 1968, he attempted reconciliation with Banda through Lady Listowel and, through her, Glyn Jones.

Although Banda reportedly expressed interest in allowing Chipembere back in exchange for his thorough recantation and support, this never came to anything.

Because of his diabetes, Chipembere wanted to live in a country with better medical facilities than Tanzania. While he apparently expressed a preference for Britain, the British government, wary of offending Banda, was not receptive. In 1969, Chipembere returned to the United States, where he taught at California State University. He died in 1975 in Southern California of complications arising from diabetes.  He was survived by his wife, Catherine, and seven children.

In the early 1990s, after Banda had been ousted, Catherine Chipembere returned to Malawi and was the first woman elected to Parliament. She also served in the Ministry of Culture and Education before retiring to Mangochi, where she worked with AIDS orphans and a women's knitting cooperative.

The son of Henry and Catherine Chipembere, Masauko Chipembere, Jr., became an internationally known jazz artist.

*****

*Dunduzu Chisiza, a nationalist and early agitator for independence in Nyasaland, was born in Florence Bay (now Chiweta or Chitimba) in the Karonga district of Nyasaland (August 8).

Dunduzu Kaluli Chisiza (also known as Gladstone Chisiza) (b. August 8, 1930, Florence Bay (now Chiweta or Chitimba) in the Karonga district of Nyasaland - d. September 3, 1962, Thondwe, Malawi)  was the youngest and eleventh child of Kaluli Chisiza, a group village headman and farmer. He, like his older brother Yatuta Chisiza, was educated at Uliwa Junior Primary School and later, to the rough equivalent of sixth grade level, as a boarder at Livingstonia.  He left school in 1949, having failed the Nyasaland Standard VI examination.

Chisiza worked as a clerk in the records office of the Tanganyika (now Tanzania) police in 1949 and later for four years continued his education at Aggrey Memorial College in Uganda, where he joined and became secretary of the Nyasaland Students' Association centered at Makarere College, supporting himself with odd jobs. At this time, he became an adherent of the Baha'i faith.  In 1955-6, after a stay in the Belgian Congo in 1952-3 and another period in Uganda,  and armed with his Cambridge Overseas School Certificate from Aggrey, he returned briefly to Nyasaland before going to work as a clerk interpreter and translator in the Indian High Commission in Salisbury (now Harare), Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). 

In Salisbury, Chisiza joined the Mashonaland branch of the Nyasaland African Congress and was instrumental in forming the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress Youth League. Together with George Nyandoro and Edson Sithole, he formed the City Youth League (CYL), whose first major accomplishment was the 1956 Salisbury Bus Boycott. In August 1956, presumably because this was regarded as a seditious organization, he was declared a prohibited immigrant and deported back to Nyasaland where he worked in a family butchery business and actively continued political activities opposing the Federation with Rhodesia. In 1957, he participated actively on behalf of the Nyasaland African Congress in constitutional discussions with the colonial administration.

Later in 1957, Chisiza went to England to study economics, sociology and political science at Fircroft College in Birmingham, where he began a correspondence with Hastings Kamuzu Banda  (later the first President of the Republic of Malawi). He was, it is thought, first commended to Banda in a letter (dated July 6. 1957) from Henry Chipembere, who described him as a young man he would like for his 'extreme views' and as 'a self-made intellectual of no university attainments who surprised all with his mental powers'. Chisiza met Banda in person in London in June of that year, when, together with Chipembere and Chief Kutanja, they met with the Colonial Secretary, Lennox-Boyd, to discuss a new constitution for Nyasaland (one which had already been roundly rejected by Nyasaland's governor, Robert Armitage). Lennox-Boyd 'took note' of their views but said he did not think Congress represented Nyasa African opinion.

In August 1958, at Banda's request, Chisiza returned to Nyasaland and, at a meeting of the Congress in Nkhata Bay on August 1, was nominated as Secretary General of the Malawi Congress Party. He, together with his brother, Yatuta, Kanyama Chiume and Henry Chipembere,  worked tirelessly to promote Banda's image as savior of the native peoples of Nyasaland. Chisiza was a key organizer of Nyasaland African Congress and part of the inner circle that met on January 24-25, 1959 to discuss a change of approach from non-violence to violence where necessary. Chisiza was arrested, along with other high-profile African dissidents, in the dawn raids of Operation Sunrise on March 3, 1959, when the colonial administration, responding to incidents of rioting in various areas of the country, declared a state of emergency in Nyasaland. He was imprisoned in Gwelo, Southern Rhodesia, in the European wing of the jail together with Banda, Chipembere and his brother Yatuta (and separately from many other Africans jailed after Operation Sunrise). He was released, some months after Banda, in September 1960 and in December participated in constitutional talks also involving Banda and Orton Chirwa in London. These were the Lancaster House Constitutional Conference, and the Federal Review Conference, the latter which was to review the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.  Early in 1961, he visited India where he took part in demonstrations at the American and Belgian embassies protesting the CIA-assisted murder of Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Congo. His pamphlet "Africa – What Lies Ahead" was published by the Indian Council for Africa. In August 1961, Chisiza was elected to represent Karonga in the Legislative Council and became Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Finance, Henry Phillips.

In the run-up to independence, Chisiza and Banda had severe and sometimes heated disagreements over policy. In April 1962, together with his now-mentor Henry Phillips, he visited London for discussions regarding Nyasaland finances. His favorable attitude toward a possible loan for a hydroelectric project to be made through the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (opposition to which was the proximate cause, many would say, for the independence movement in Nyasaland) reportedly caused Banda to become extremely annoyed. The rift was such that, according to some reports, Chisiza resigned or threatened to resign. Some sources allege that he seriously contemplated forming an opposition party, possibly along with Henry Chipembere, once independence had been achieved.

In July 1962 Chisiza hosted an economic development symposium, sponsored by the Ford Foundation,  at which authorities from around the world presented papers on African and Malawian development.  He himself gave a presentation warning of the dangers of dictatorship in emerging African countries. (Among his publications was the aforementioned paper entitled "Africa – What Lies Ahead?", published by the African-American Institute, New York, in 1962). The conference was an unqualified success. In the short time of his prominence, Chisiza gained enormous respect in the west for his intellect, energy and pioneering ideas.

Chisiza died on the night of Monday, September 3, 1962, while driving back to Zomba from Blantyre. His cream-colored Mercedes was found in a small stream bed beside a bridge at Thondwe, on the road to Zomba. An inquest concluded he had died from a fracture at the base of his skull. He left a wife and three sons. One, Du Chisiza Jur, was born subsequent to his death and became one of Malawi's most prominent playwrights.