Hank Aaron, byname of Henry Louis Aaron (b. February 5, 1934, Mobile, Alabama), American professional baseball player who, during 23 seasons in the major leagues (1954–76), surpassed batting records set by some of the greatest hitters in the game, including Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, and Stan Musial.
Aaron, a right-hander, began his professional career in 1952, playing shortstop for a few months with the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro American League. His contract was bought by the Boston Braves of the National League, who assigned him to minor league teams. In 1954 he moved up to the majors, playing mostly as an outfielder for the Braves (who had moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1953). In 1956, he won the league batting championship with an average of .328, and in 1957, having led his team to victory in the World Series, he was named the league’s Most Valuable Player. By the time the Braves moved to Atlanta, Georgia, at the end of 1965, Aaron had hit 398 home runs. In Atlanta on April 8, 1974, he hit his 715th, breaking Babe Ruth’s record, which had stood since 1935. After the 1974 season, Aaron was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers, who were at that time in the American League. Aaron retired after the 1976 season and rejoined the Braves as an executive. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame on January 13, 1982. In 2010 the Hank Aaron Childhood Home and Museum opened on the grounds of Hank Aaron Stadium, the home of Mobile, Alabama’s minor league baseball team.
Aaron’s batting records include totals of 1,477 extra-base hits and 2,297 runs batted in. His home run record of 755 was broken by Barry Bonds in 2007. Aaron’s other notable career statistics include 2,174 runs scored (second to Ty Cobb) and 12,364 times at bat (second to Pete Rose). His hit total (3,771) was exceeded only by those of Cobb and Rose. Aaron’s lifetime batting average was .305.
Somebody Blew Up America,” which suggested that Israel had prior knowledge of the September 11 attacks in the United States.
After his playing career ended, Baylor coached the New Orleans Jazz (1974–79). In 1986, he was named vice president of basketball operations for the Los Angeles Clippers. Despite being named Executive of the Year in 2006, his tenure managing the Clippers was marked by mostly losing seasons and clashes with team ownership, and he resigned from his position in 2008.
*Willie Brown, the first African American to serve as Speaker of the California State Assembly and the 41st Mayor of San Francisco, California, was born in Mineola, Texas (March 20).
Willie Brown, in full Willie Lewis Brown, Jr. (b. March 20, 1934, Mineola, Texas) was the first African American Speaker of the California State Assembly, the longest-serving speaker of that body (1980–95), and Mayor of San Francisco (1996–2004).
Brown was born into poverty in rural Texas and moved to San Francisco after graduating from high school. In 1955 he received a bachelor’s degree in liberal studies from San Francisco State College (now San Francisco State University), and three years later he earned a law degree from the University of California Hastings College of the Law (1958). Brown established a private legal practice and became active in politics. In 1964 he won election to the California State Assembly. Appointed to chair the Legislative Representation Committee, he used the post to enhance his position in the legislature and to facilitate his rise to power. In 1969 he became the Democratic Party whip, and in 1974 he made an unsuccessful bid to become speaker of the State Assembly. In 1980, winning the support of 28 Republicans and 23 Democrats, he was elected speaker, a post he held until 1995.
A flamboyant figure, Brown was a prime target of the successful effort in 1990 in California to limit state legislators to three terms. Forced to retire from the State Assembly, he was elected mayor of San Francisco in 1995 and was re-elected in 1999. After leaving office in 2004, Brown briefly co-hosted (2006) a radio talk show and established an institute on public service and politics. In 2008, he published Basic Brown: My Life and Our Times, an autobiography. He also had small roles in several films, including The Godfather, Part III (1990), George of the Jungle (1997), Just One Night (2000), and The Princess Diaries (2001).
Little Milton was born James Milton Campbell, Jr., in the Mississippi Delta town of Inverness and raised in Greenville by a farmer and local blues musician. By age twelve, he was a street musician, chiefly influenced by T-Bone Walker and his blues and rock and roll contemporaries. He joined the Rhythm Aces in the early part of the 1950s, a three piece band who played throughout the Mississippi Delta area. One of the group was Eddie Cusic who taught Milton to play the guitar. In 1952, while still a teenager playing in local bars, he caught the attention of Ike Turner, who was at that time a talent scout for Sam Phillips' Sun Records. He signed a contract with the label and recorded a number of singles. None of them broke through onto radio or sold well at record stores, however, and Milton left the Sun label by 1955.
After trying several labels without notable success, including Trumpet Records, Milton set up the St. Louis based Bobbin Records label, which ultimately scored a distribution deal with Leonard Chess' Chess Records. As a record producer, Milton helped bring artists such as Albert King and Fontella Bass to fame, while experiencing his own success for the first time. After a number of small format and regional hits, his 1962 single, "So Mean to Me," broke onto the Billboard R&B chart, eventually peaking at #14.
Following a short break to tour, managing other acts, and spending time recording new material, he returned to music in 1965 with a more polished sound, similar to that of B. B. King. After the ill-received "Blind Man" (R&B: #86), he released back-to-back hit singles. The first, "We're Gonna Make It," a blues-infused soul song, topped the R&B chart and broke through onto Top 40 radio, a format then dominated largely by white artists. He followed the song with #4 R&B hit "Who's Cheating Who?" All three songs were featured on his album, We're Gonna Make It, released that summer.
Throughout the late 1960s, Milton released a number of moderately successful singles, but did not issue a further album until 1969, with Grits Ain't Groceries featuring his hit of the same name, as well as "Just a Little Bit" and "Baby, I Love You". With the death of Leonard Chess the same year, Milton's distributor, Checker Records fell into disarray, and Milton joined the Stax label two years later. Adding complex orchestration to his works, Milton scored hits with "That's What Love Will Make You Do" and "What It Is" from his live album, What It Is: Live at Montreux. He appeared in the documentary film, Wattstax, which was released in 1973. Stax, however, had been losing money since late in the previous decade and was forced into bankruptcy in 1975.
After leaving Stax, Milton struggled to maintain a career, moving first to Evidence, then the MCA imprint Mobile Fidelity Records, before finding a home at the independent record label, Malaco Records, where he remained for much of the remainder of his career. His last hit single, "Age Ain't Nothin' But a Number," was released in 1983 from the album of the same name. In 1988, Little Milton was inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame and won a W. C. Handy Award. His final album, Think of Me, was released in May 2005 on the Telarc imprint, and included writing and guitar on three songs by Peter Shoulder of the UK-based blues-rock trio Winterville.
*Sammie Chess, Jr. (b. 1934), the first African America judge in North Carolina, was born, Chess served on the bench from 1971 to 1975. A native of Allendale, South Carolina, Chess earned a law degree from North Carolina Central Univerity. His appointment also made him the first African American superior court judge in the South in modern times.
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Franklin Clarke (b. February 7, 1934, Beloit, Wisconsin) was named after Franklin D. Roosevelt, the 32nd President of the United States. He attended Beloit Memorial High School where he was an all-state football player.
After attending Trinidad State Junior College for two years, where he had a successful career, he became the first African American varsity football player at the University of Colorado at Boulder, joining the Buffaloes in September 1954. He had to sit out the season after transferring. He was joined by John Wooten the following year and because this was before the civil rights movement, the pair often had to endure open racism outside of Boulder.
Clarke amassed 532 yards receiving, ending his career fifth at the time in receiving yards at Colorado. He was so well liked among his peers on campus, that he was chosen as King of the annual Days festival, Colorado's equivalent of Homecoming King.
He was an honorable mention All-Big 7 conference performer as a junior, when he was second in the league in receiving. As a senior, he was selected to play in the Copper Bowl All-Star Game.
In 2008, he was inducted into the Colorado Athletic Hall of Fame.
Clarke was drafted in the fifth round of the 1956 NFL Draft by the Cleveland Browns. He played with the team for three seasons, from 1957 to 1959, even though he stood on the sidelines during the first two. He had a total of 10 catches during those three years and was left unprotected in the 1960 NFL Expansion Draft.
Clarke was selected by the Dallas Cowboys in the 1960 NFL Expansion Draft. His coaches at Colorado and Cleveland criticized his blocking, but the Cowboys were still intrigued by the 6-1, 215-pound player. Instead of picking at his deficiencies, Tom Landry chose to accentuate his strengths. The coach appreciated his speed, soft hands and his ability to run precise routes, so he was converted into a split end.
Clarke did not make an immediate impression in Dallas either, catching only nine passes in a backup role, during the 1960 season. However, he moved into the starting role in 1961,
finishing with 919 yards, 41 receptions and 9 touchdowns. Additionally, he started a streak of seven consecutive games with at least a touchdown reception, which, as of 2016, still stood as a Cowboys record shared with Bob Hayes (1965-1966), Terrell Owens (2007) and Dez Bryant (2012).
Clarke turned out to be the Cowboys' first bona fide long-ball threat—before "Bullet" Bob Hayes joined him. Hayes even credited Clarke for teaching him the proper way to catch "the bomb"—the long pass. He is also credited as being the first African American star athlete, on a Cowboys team that played in a then racially divided Dallas, Texas.
His opening day performance against the Washington Redskins in 1962 was one for the ages. His ten receptions for 241 yards, remains the best opening day performance in terms of most yards receiving, of any wide receiver in the history of the NFL. That year would be his best, becoming the first player in team history to gain more than 1000 yards in a season (ground or air) and recording 47 passes for career high numbers in yards (1043) and touchdowns (14). In addition to leading the NFL with 14 touchdown and 22.2 yards per reception.
On September 23, 1962, Clarke was part of an infamous play where, for the first time in an NFL game, points were awarded for a penalty. The Cowboys were holding in the end zone on a 99-yard touchdown pass from Eddie LeBaron to Clarke, and the Pittsburgh Steelers were awarded a safety, helping them win the game 30-28.
He moved to tight end towards the end of his career, but he remained productive and became a clutch third down receiver. In 1964, he caught 65 passes for 973 yards and received All-Pro honors.
Clarke led the Cowboys in yards and touchdowns from 1961 to 1964, and catches in 1963 and 1964. He also held the franchise record for most touchdowns in a season by a receiver with 14 during his 1962 season, which stood for 45 years until 2007, when it was broken by Terrell Owens. He also had the team record for the most career receiving multi-touchdown games with 9, until it was broken by Dez Bryant in 2014.
Clarke retired after the 1967 NFL Championship Game against the Green Bay Packers, in what is now known as the "Ice Bowl", won by the Packers, 21-17. Clarke caught 281 passes for 5,214 yards and 51 touchdowns in 140 NFL games, which ranks sixth in receiving yards in Dallas Cowboys history.
Clarke became the first African American sports anchor for a Dallas television station and at CBS. On weekends, Clarke anchored sports reports for WFAA-TV (Channel 8) when not working NFL games for CBS.
Bennie Ross "Hank" Crawford, Jr. (b. December 21, 1934, Memphis, Tennessee – d. January 29, 2009, Memphis, Tennessee) was an R&B, hard bop, jazz-funk, soul jazz alto saxophonist, arranger and songwriter. Crawford was musical director for Ray Charles before embarking on a solo career releasing many well-regarded albums on Atlantic, CTI and Milestone.
Hank Crawford died from complications of a stroke on January 29, 2014, in Memphis, Tennessee.
Born on a farm near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, of African American and Filipino heritage, she worked as a laboratory technician in New York before migrating to Europe as a teenager. She began acting in England, with some minor television roles. Then, in 1953, she relocated to France and while occasionally working as a governess also sang and danced in nightclubs, where she met director Marcel Camus. At the age of 24, she won the role of "Eurydice" in his film Black Orpheus. The film won the Palme d'Or at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival and the 1960 Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. She married Camus, but divorced him soon after and married Belgian actor Eric Vander. Considered a great beauty, she was featured in November 1959 by Ebony magazine.
Horne studied voice at the University of Southern California with William Vennard and at the Music Academy of the West, Santa Barbara, California, with Lotte Lehmann. In 1954, she dubbed the voice of Dorothy Dandridge in the film Carmen Jones; the same year, she made her opera debut with the Los Angeles Guild Opera as Hata in Bedřich Smetana’s The Bartered Bride. She left school and in 1956 performed the role of Giulietta in Jacques Offenbach’s The Tales of Hoffmann at the Gelsenkirchen Opera in West Germany. In three seasons at the Gelsenkirchen she performed such roles as Fulvia in Handel’s Ezio and Marie in Alban Berg's Wozzeck.
Horne repeated her role in Wozzeck at the San Francisco Opera in 1960. The following year, as Agnese in Vincenzo Bellini's Beatrice di Tenda, she joined Joan Sutherland in the first of several joint concert performances. It was also Horne’s first bel canto role. Her debut at La Scala, Milan, came in 1969 in Igor Stravinsky’s Oedipus Rex. Her long-awaited debut at New York City’s Metropolitan Opera came in 1970 as Adalgisa in Bellini’s Norma; she subsequently became one of the Met’s principal singers. Horne had her greatest successes in such roles as Rossini’s Tancredi and Handel’s Rinaldo. Because of her ability to sing roles that had been originally written for the castrati (who had both an upper range and great vocal power), Horne was known for resurrecting seldom-performed operas. Horne’s efforts were rewarded in 1982, when she was awarded the first Golden Plaque of the Rossini Foundation, honoring her as “the greatest Rossini singer in the world.”
In 1993, Horne sang at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton. The following year she established the Marilyn Horne Foundation, which gives aspiring opera singers opportunities to perform throughout the United States. In 1995, Horne became director of the vocal program at The Music Academy of the West. Marilyn Horne: My Life (written with Jane Scovell) was published in 1983.
*Roy Innis, the National Chairman of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) from 1968 to 2017, was born in Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands (June 6).
Roy Emile Alfredo Innis (b. June 6, 1934, Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands – d. January 8, 2017, New York City, New York) was an activist and politician. Innis was born in Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands in 1934. In 1947, Innis moved with his mother from the United States Virgin Islands to New York City, where he graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1952. At age 16, Innis joined the United States Army, and at age 18 he received an honorable discharge. He entered a four-year program in chemistry at the City College of New York. He subsequently held positions as a research chemist at Vick Chemical Company and Montefiore Hospital.
William Benjamin Jones was born on October 4, 1934, in Mansfield, Ohio. He was given up for adoption by his birth parents and reared by Willy and Bertha Jones. After graduating from Mansfield Senior High School in 1954, he enrolled in Howard University in Washington, but he left during his freshman year to enlist in the Air Force.
Jones stayed in the Air Force for the next two decades, attaining the rank of sergeant. He was trained as an accountant but became fascinated by photography.
While stationed on Okinawa, he staged fashion shows on the base and took runway photographs. Later, when he was stationed in England, he took courses at the London School of Photography.
He took his first celebrity photo when Muhammad Ali came to London in 1966 for a return match with the English heavyweight Henry Cooper.
After leaving the Air Force, Jones moved to Los Angeles, where he earned a master’s degree in business from California State University, Los Angeles, in 1976. While making his early red-carpet forays — he started with a photograph of the comedian Redd Foxx leaving a restaurant on Venice Boulevard — he worked at the accounting firm Swinerton & Walberg.
The disc jockey and entrepreneur Hal Jackson hired Jones as the photographer for his Talented Teens International Competition.
Jones photographed the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. when he visited Los Angeles in 1964, and in 1990 he traveled to South Africa, paying his own way, to photograph Nelson Mandela as he was released from prison. At the 2002 Academy Awards, he photographed Ms. Berry and Mr. Washington, winners of the best actress and best actor Oscars, holding their gold statuettes aloft. It was one of his favorite images.
In 1997, washing his car in front of his house in South Los Angeles, Mr. Jones was attacked by a neighbor with a baseball bat. No motive was ever determined. He lay in a coma for a month, with multiple skull fractures. Many of the celebrities he had photographed over the years raised money to help with his medical treatment.
After a long period of rehabilitation, he resumed his photographic work, using his left hand to take pictures. His most memorable images were collected in "Hollywood in Black: 40 Years of Photography by Bill Jones," published in 2006. That year the annual Hollywood Black Film Festival honored him with a retrospective.
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– d. November 17, 1992, Saint Croix, United States Virgin Islands) was an African American writer, feminist, womanist, lesbian, and civil rights activist. As a poet, she is best known for technical mastery and emotional expression, particularly in her poems expressing anger and outrage at the civil and social injustices she observed throughout her life. Her poems and prose largely dealt with issues related to civil rights, feminism, and the exploration of black female identity.
The daughter of Grenadan parents, Lorde attended Hunter College and received a B.A. in 1959 and a master’s degree in library science in 1961. She married in 1962 and wrote poetry while working as a librarian at Town School in New York. She also taught English at Hunter College. In 1968 her first volume of poetry, The First Cities, was published, and Lorde briefly left New York to become poet-in-residence at Toogaloo College in Mississippi.
Cables to Rage (1970) explored her anger at social and personal injustice and contained the first poetic expression of her lesbianism. Her next volumes, From a Land Where Other People Live (1973) and New York Head Shop and Museum (1974), were more rhetorical and political.
Coal (1976), a compilation of earlier works, was Lorde’s first release by a major publisher, and it earned critical notice. Most critics consider The Black Unicorn (1978) to be her finest poetic work. In it she turned from the urban themes of her early work, looking instead to Africa, and wrote on her role as mother and daughter, using rich imagery and mythology.
The poet’s 14-year battle with cancer is examined in The Cancer Journals (1980), in which she recorded her early battle with the disease and gave a feminist critique of the medical profession. In 1980, Lorde and African American writer and activist Barbara Smith created a new publishing house, Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press. Lorde’s volume A Burst of Light (1988), which further detailed her struggle with cancer, won a National Book Award in 1989. She also wrote the novel Zami: A New Spelling of My Name (1982), noted for its clear, evocative imagery and its treatment of a mother-daughter relationship. Her poetry collection, Undersong: Chosen Poems Old and New, was published in 1992. Her last volume of poetry, The Marvelous Arithmetics of Distance, was published posthumously, in 1993.
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*Barbara Jean McNair, a model and actress, was born in Chicago, Illinois (March 4).
Born in Chicago, Illinois, the family of Barbara McNair (b. March 4, 1934, Chicago, Illinois - d. February 4, 2007, Los Angeles, California ) moved to Racine, Wisconsin, shortly after her birth. With her parents' persuasion, McNair began singing in school productions and during church services. McNair studied music at the American Conservatory of Music in Chicago.
McNair's big break came with a win on Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts, which led to bookings at The Purple Onion and the Cocoanut Grove. She soon became a popular headliner and a guest on such television variety shows as The Steve Allen Show, Hullabaloo, The Bell Telephone Hour, and The Hollywood Palace, while recording for the Coral, Signature, Motown, and TEC Recording Studios labels. Among her hits were "You're Gonna Love My Baby" and "Bobby".
In the early 1960s, McNair made several musical shorts for Scopitone, a franchise of coin-operated machines that showed what were the forerunners of today's music videos. In 1967, McNair traveled with Bob Hope to Southeast Asia to perform for United States troops during the Vietnam War. McNair's acting career began on television, as a guest on series such as Dr. Kildare, The Eleventh Hour, I Spy, Mission: Impossible, Hogan's Heroes and McMillan and Wife. McNair posed nude for Playboy in the October 1968 issue. She caught the attention of the movie-going public with her much-publicized nude sequences in the gritty crime drama If He Hollers Let Him Go (1968) opposite Raymond St. Jacques, then donned a nun's habit alongside Mary Tyler Moore for Change of Habit (1969), Elvis Presley's last feature film. She portrayed Sidney Poitier's wife in They Call Me Mister Tibbs! (1970) and its sequel, The Organization (1971), and George Jefferson's deranged ex-girlfriend Yvonne in The Jeffersons (1984).
McNair's Broadway credits include The Body Beautiful (1958), No Strings (1962), and a revival of The Pajama Game (1973). McNair starred in her own 1969 television variety series The Barbara McNair Show, becoming one of the first black women to host her own musical variety show. The show, which was produced in Canada by CTV (at CFTO/Toronto) lasted three seasons in first-run syndication in the United States until 1972, when she married Frederick (Rick) Andrew Manzie. Manzie managed McNair and produced the show with Burt Rosen. The show starred A-list guests including Tony Bennett, Sonny and Cher, The Righteous Brothers, Johnny Mathis, Freda Payne, Mahalia Jackson, Della Reese, Lou Rawls, Rich Littl, B. B. King, Ethel Waters, Debbie Reynolds, and Lionel Hampton. McNair also appeared on TV game shows in the 1960s, including You Don't Say, Hollywood Squares, and The Match Game. She was also the VIP guest on the talk shows of Johnny Carson, Joey Bishop, Mike Douglas, and Merv Griffin. McNair recordings include Livin' End, The Real Barbara McNair, More Today Than Yesterday, Broadway Show Stoppers, A Movie Soundtrack If He Hollers, Let Him Go, I Enjoy Being a Girl, and The Ultimate Motown Collection, a two-CD set with 48 tracks that include her two albums for the label plus a non-album single and B-side and an entire LP that never was released.
McNair was married four times, to Jack Rafferty (1963–71), Rick Manzie (1972–76), Ben Strahan (1980–86) and Charles Becka (1992–2007). On December 15, 1976, her second husband, Rick Manzie, was murdered, in their Las Vegas mansion.
Into her 70s, McNair resided in the Los Angeles area, playing tennis and skiing to keep in shape and touring on occasion. She died on February 4, 2007, of throat cancer, in Los Angeles, survived by her husband Charles Blecka, sister Jaquline Gaither, niece Angela Rosenow, and the nephew of her late husband Frederick Manzie, John Thomas and his family.
*Yvonne Miller, the first African American woman to be elected to the Virginia state legislature, was born in Edenton, North Carolina (July 4).
Yvonne Bond Miller (b. July 4, 1934, Edenton, North Carolina - d. July 3, 2012, Norfolk, Virginia) was born in 1934 as Yvonne Bond in Edenton, North Carolina, the eldest child of thirteen, to John T. and Pency C. Bond. She was raised in Norfolk, Virginia, after her family moved there. She attended local public schools, which were then segregated by state law.
*Billy Paul, a singer known for the soul ballad "Me and Mrs. Jones", was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (December 1).
Born Paul Williams in North Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on December 1, 1934, Paul's childhood was steeped in music and his naturally high voice and adaptable vocal range meant that he had a particular affinity for female soul and jazz singers.
Educated at the West Philadelphia Music School and the Granoff School of Music, by the time Paul was 16 he was performing at the ritzy West Philadelphia jazz hotspot Club Harlem, where he appeared on the same bill as Charlie Parker, a year before Parker’s death.
After changing his name to Billy Paul, he was soon being booked for regular club appearances and concert performances on the Philadelphia music scene. In 1952, he recorded his first single, "Why Am I", in New York, described by Billboard magazine as the “expressive warbling of a moody ballad, by the label’s new 16-year-old chanter”.
Paul recorded several more discs before being drafted, in 1957, into the United States Army, where he served alongside Elvis Presley in Germany and performed with the 7th Army Band. In 1959, after being discharged, he returned to the music scene and had a spell in the ever-changing line-up of Harold Melvin’s popular Philadelphia soul group, the Blue Notes. During this time, Paul met and befriended Marvin Gaye, who was also working as a jobbing singer with the emerging soul groups.
In the late 1960s, Paul and his wife (also his manager), Blanche Williams, were approached by Kenny Gamble, who, with his songwriting and producing partner, Leon Huff, would go on to create the Philadelphia soul sound for their label, Philadelphia International Records (PIR). Gamble signed Paul to his label and in 1968 he released his first album, Feelin’ Good at the Cadillac Club, although it was not a commercial success. With Gamble and Huff’s formation of PIR, however, Paul found himself joining a family of new acts who combined soul and jazz with funky dance grooves.
In 1972, he released the album 360 Degrees of Billy Paul, on which he had included "Me and Mrs. Jones". The yearning lyrics of the song – which was written by Gamble and Huff with Cary Gilbert, and was later covered by artists ranging from Michael Bublé to the actress Sandra Bernhard – were brought to life by Paul’s effortless and occasionally soaring vocals.
The song reached No. 1 in the US charts in 1972 and was a British Top 20 hit the following year. It sold two million copies and went on to win Paul a Grammy Award. It was also the first No. 1 for PIR, and it was expected that Paul would soon release another smoochy soul classic. It was, therefore, somewhat surprising to Paul (and the mainstream fans of "Me and Mrs. Jones") when he followed it up with "Am I Black Enough for You?"
The song, described by one critic as “a social message moved along by a perky bongo and clavinet-dominated beat, and well-spaced, brassy horn hits” failed to achieve the crossover success of "Me and Mrs. Jones" and was later adopted by the Black Power movement. Paul himself revealed that he had not wanted to release the single.
Commercially it proved difficult for Paul to recover from such an overtly political track, and although he continued to release a number of critically acclaimed and popular discs, he never achieved the recognition or mainstream fame of some of his contemporaries. His single, "Let’s Make a Baby" (1976), also attracted controversy, although this time because of lyrics which were regarded as too explicitly sexual. Some American radio stations tried to ban the song, while one chose to play it, but not announce its title.
In 1977, Paul recorded a version of Paul McCartney’s Wings song "Let ’Em In", changing the lyrics to include a list of civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. That same year he joined Lou Rawls, Archie Bell, Teddy Pendergrass, Dee Dee Sharp Gamble, Eddie Levert and Walter Williams as part of the Philadelphia International All-Stars singing the outrageously groovy "Let’s Clean Up the Ghetto".
Billy Paul continued to record in the late 1970s and 1980s and, despite announcing his retirement in 1989, was playing at small venues and festivals into his seventies. In 2009, he was the subject of a documentary, Am I Black Enough for You?, in which it was revealed that he had had a spell as a cocaine addict, before recovering with the help of his wife. The couple were described as coming across as “a jazzy Derby and Joan.”
Paul died on the afternoon of April 24, 2016, at his home in the Blackwood section of Gloucester Township, New Jersey, from pancreatic cancer at the age of 81.
Russell’s impact was immediate. The Celtics won a title in his rookie year, and he became the league’s first African American superstar, though not its first black player (who was Earl Lloyd in 1950). He missed out on the NBA’s Rookie of the Year award, ostensibly because teammate Tom Heinsohn had played the entire season whereas Russell had missed time as a result of his participation in the Melbourne 1956 Olympic Games (where he helped the United States men’s basketball team win a gold medal). But there was more to it than that: the white Heinsohn was simply a more attractive candidate for many voters. Russell, outspoken and relentlessly intelligent when it came to matters of race, was not just the NBA’s first black superstar; as the Celtics quickly came to dominate the NBA, he also became an activist on par with Muhammad Ali. Russell would not stand for racism in sports, which was ironic, given Boston's historical notoriety in that regard.
During his career, Russell supported the American civil rights movement, spoke out against the Vietnam War, and did much that, had it come from any lesser athlete, would have been cause for immediate controversy. But the Celtics kept winning, and he remained the engine that made them go. Frustratingly, his sheer basketball excellence made his actions not only excusable for fans but tolerated in a way that bordered on dismissive. His on-court achievements did not give him a platform; instead, they granted him a strange kind of amnesty—the very greatness that should have forced others to listen somehow overshadowed any trouble he might have wanted to stir up.
By the end of his career, however, Russell himself had come to see the turmoil of the 1960s as far more important than the game he played for a living. As the decade progressed, the Celtics continued to make history. In 1964, they became the first team in the NBA to start an all-black lineup. Auerbach’s lineup came out of necessity; he was notoriously indifferent to social causes and the opposing backlash. It was, however, a milestone made possible by Russell’s performance and larger significance. When Auerbach retired after the Celtics won the 1965–66 NBA title, Russell succeeded him as coach. Granted, it was in part because no one could deal with the moody Russell except Russell himself, but it still made him the first African American coach in NBA history, as well as the first to win a title when Boston took the 1967–68 championship. Russell took home one more championship before hanging up his sneakers for good in 1969. He had made great strides within the game of basketball, but the restless, conscientious Russell felt that there were bigger battles to fight. After his retirement, he served as head coach of the Seattle Supersonics (1973–77) and the Sacramento Kings (1987–88), served as a commentator on television broadcasts of NBA games, and continued to remain active in social causes. His autobiography, Second Wind: The Memoirs of an Opinionated Man (co-written with Taylor Branch), was published in 1979. Russell was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1975, and in 2011 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
In 13 seasons, Russell won 11 NBA championships (1957, 1959–66, and 1968–69). For good measure, he might have had 12, had an ankle injury not sidelined him early in the 1958 NBA finals. It is a truly staggering rate of success, one that no other NBA player has come close to approaching. Russell’s Celtics ruled the roost at a time when the minuscule number of teams (the NBA consisted of eight or nine franchises for the majority of his career) made for a greatly condensed talent pool, and a combination of integration and improved scouting brought on an unprecedented rush of new stars.
Yet in a sport that traditionally celebrates scoring and offensive heroics, Russell was an anomaly: a dominant player for whom making shots was truly secondary. His calling card was defense, rebounding, and—above all else—shot blocking, which he transformed into a fluid athletic art in the same way that some of his contemporaries had altered the perception of what was possible on offense. Before his arrival, the Celtics had been a shot-happy, nearly out-of-control team, led by passing wizard Bob Cousy. What Russell did was close the circuit, creating turnovers that allowed Boston to get back on offense even faster, as well as patrol the paint with an intensity that single-handedly compensated for the Celtics’ imbalance. Over the years, Russell’s approach became the team’s overall philosophy as athletic players who saw defense as a means to key the fast break were introduced into the roster. The Celtics dynasty retooled over the years between 1956 and 1969, but the one constant was Russell. He defined the team’s philosophy and its strategy. But above all else, Russell was basketball’s ultimate winner.
Sanchez counted the negritude poets among her artistic influences, but also found inspiration from her work as an activist with CORE in New York. While with CORE, Sanchez came into contact with Malcolm X, whose direct truthfulness moved her to write blunt, passionate, and painfully honest poetry about the African American experience.
During the course of her career, Sanchez wrote several books and collections of poetry that captured, often with wrenching emotion, the plight of her community. Sanchez found herself profoundly affected by the 1985 bombing of a house full of black political radicals affiliated with MOVE, and eulogized them in Elegy: For Move and Philadelphia.
Sanchez received several awards for her work both as a poet and an activist. Sanchez traveled around the world to read her poetry, and also wrote children's fiction and plays.
Betty Shabazz and Malcolm X
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Betty Shabazz (born Betty Dean Sanders;[2] May 28, 1934/1936[a] – June 23, 1997), also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was married to Malcolm X.
Shabazz grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism. She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where she had her first encounters with racism. Unhappy with the situation in Alabama, she moved to New York City, where she became a nurse. It was there that she met Malcolm X and, in 1956, joined the Nation of Islam. The couple married in 1958.
Along with her husband, Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964. She witnessed his assassination the following year. Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a widow, Shabazz pursued higher education, and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
Following the 1995 arrest of her daughter, Qubilah, for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan, Shabazz took in her ten-year-old grandson Malcolm. In 1997, he set fire to her apartment. Shabazz suffered severe burns and died three weeks later as a result of her injuries.
Betty Dean Sanders was born on May 28, 1934 or 1936,[a] to Ollie Mae Sanders and Shelman Sandlin. Sandlin was 21 years old and Ollie Mae Sanders was a teenager; the couple were unmarried. Throughout her life, Betty Sanders maintained that she had been born in Detroit but early records — such as her high-school and college transcripts — show Pinehurst, Georgia, as her place of birth. Authorities in Georgia and Michigan have been unable to locate her birth certificate.[3]
By most accounts, Ollie Mae Sanders abused her daughter, whom she was raising in Detroit. When Betty was about 11 years old, she was taken in by Lorenzo and Helen Malloy, a prominent businessman and his wife. Helen Malloy was a founding member of the Housewives League of Detroit, a group of African-American women who organized campaigns to support black-owned businesses and boycott stores that refused to hire black employees. She was also a member of the National Council of Negro Women and the NAACP. The Malloys were both active members of their local Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church.[4]
Despite their lessons on black self-reliance, the Malloys never spoke with Sanders about racism.[5] Looking back in 1995, Shabazz wrote: "Race relations were not discussed and it was hoped that by denying the existence of race problems, the problems would go away. Anyone who openly discussed race relations was quickly viewed as a 'troublemaker.'"[6] Still, two race riots during her childhood—in 1942 when the Sojourner Truth housing project was desegregated, and one the following year on Belle Isle—made up what Shabazz later called the "psychological background for my formative years".[7][8]
After she graduated from high school, Sanders left her foster parents' home in Detroit to study at the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University), a historically black college in Alabama that was Lorenzo Malloy's alma mater. She intended to earn a degree in education and become a teacher.[9] When she left Detroit to go to Alabama, her foster mother stood at the train station crying. Shabazz later recalled that Malloy was trying to mumble something, but the words would not come out. By the time she arrived in Alabama, she felt she knew what her foster mother was saying. "The minute I got off that train, I knew what she was trying to say. She was trying to tell me in ten words or less about racism."[10]
Nothing had prepared Sanders for Southern racism. So long as she stayed on campus, she could avoid interacting with white people, but weekend trips into Montgomery, the nearest city, would try her patience. Black students had to wait until every white person in a store had been helped before the staff would serve them — if they received any service at all. When she complained to the Malloys, they refused to discuss the issue; in a 1989 interview, Shabazz summarized their attitude as "if you're just quiet it will go away."[11]
Sanders' studies suffered as a result of her growing frustration. She decided to change her field of study from education to nursing. The dean of nursing, Lillian Holland Harvey, encouraged Sanders to consider studying in a Tuskegee-affiliated program at the Brooklyn State College School of Nursing in New York City. Against her foster parents' wishes, Sanders left Alabama for New York in 1953.[12]
In New York, Sanders encountered a different form of racism. At Montefiore Hospital, where she performed her clinical training, black nurses were given worse assignments than white nurses. White patients sometimes were abusive toward black nurses. While the racial climate in New York was better than the situation in Alabama, Sanders frequently wondered whether she had merely exchanged Jim Crow racism for a more genteel prejudice.[13]
During her second year of nursing school, Sanders was invited by an older nurse's aide to a Friday night dinner party at the Nation of Islam temple in Harlem. "The food was delicious", Shabazz recalled in 1992, "I'd never tasted food like that."[14] After dinner, the woman asked Sanders to come to the Muslims' lecture. Sanders agreed. After the speech, the nurse's aide invited Sanders to join the Nation of Islam; Sanders politely declined.[14] When the woman asked her why she chose not to join the Nation of Islam after visiting, Sanders replied that she did not know she had been brought there to join. "Besides, my mother would kill me, and additionally I don't even understand the philosophy."[10] The Malloys were Methodists, and when she was 13, Sanders had decided she would remain a Methodist for the rest of her life.[10]
The nurse's aide told Sanders about her minister, who was not at the temple that night: "Just wait until you hear my minister talk. He's very disciplined, he's good looking, and all the sisters want him."[14] Sanders enjoyed the food so much, she agreed to come back and meet the woman's minister. At the second dinner, the nurse's aide told her the minister was present and Sanders thought to herself, "Big deal."[15]
In 1992, she recalled how her demeanor changed when she caught a glimpse of Malcolm X:
Sanders met Malcolm X again at a dinner party. The two had a long conversation about Sanders's life: her childhood in Detroit, the racial hostility she had encountered in Alabama, and her studies in New York. He spoke to her about the condition of African Americans and the causes of racism. Sanders began to see things from a different perspective.[17] "I really had a lot of pent-up anxiety about my experience in the South," Shabazz recalled in a 1990 interview, "and Malcolm reassured me that it was understandable how I felt."[18]
Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X's lectures at Temple Number Seven in Harlem. He always sought her out afterwards, and he would ask her a lot of questions.[19] Sanders was impressed with Malcolm X's leadership and work ethic. She felt he was selfless when it came to helping others, but he had no one to lean on when he needed help. She thought maybe she could be that person.[10] He also began to pressure her to join the Nation of Islam. In mid-1956, Sanders converted. Like many members of the Nation of Islam, she changed her surname to "X", which represented the family name of her African ancestors whom she could never have known.[19]
Betty X and Malcolm X did not have a conventional courtship. One-on-one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Instead, the couple shared their "dates" with dozens of other members. Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York's museums and libraries, and he always invited Betty X.[16]
Although they had never discussed the subject, Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage. One day he called and asked her to marry him, and they were married on January 14, 1958, in Lansing, Michigan.[20][21] By coincidence, Betty X became a licensed practical nurse (LPN) on the same day.[22]
At first, their relationship followed the Nation of Islam's strictures concerning marriage; Malcolm X set the rules and Betty X obediently followed them.[23] In 1969, Shabazz wrote that "his indoctrination was so thorough, even to me, that it has become a pattern for our [family's] lives."[24] Over time, the family dynamic changed, as Malcolm X made small concessions to Betty X's demands for more independence.[25] In 1969, Shabazz recalled:
The couple had six daughters. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun;[b] Qubilah, born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan; Ilyasah, born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad; Gamilah Lumumba, born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba; and twins, Malikah and Malaak, born in 1965 after their father's assassination and named for him.[30]
On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X announced that he was leaving the Nation of Islam.[31] He and Betty X, now known as Betty Shabazz, became Sunni Muslims.[32][33]
On February 21, 1965, in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, Malcolm X began to speak to a meeting of the Organization of Afro-American Unity when a disturbance broke out in the crowd of 400.[34] As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance, a man rushed forward and shot Malcolm in the chest with a sawed-off shotgun.[35] Two other men charged the stage and fired handguns, hitting Malcolm X 16 times.[36]
Shabazz was in the audience near the stage with her daughters. When she heard the gunfire, she grabbed the children and pushed them to the floor beneath the bench, where she shielded them with her body. When the shooting stopped, Shabazz ran toward her husband and tried to perform CPR. Police officers and Malcolm X's associates used a stretcher to carry him up the block to Columbia Presbyterian Hospital, where he was pronounced dead.[37]
Angry onlookers caught and beat one of the assassins, who was arrested on the scene.[38][39] Eyewitnesses identified two more suspects. All three men, who were members of the Nation of Islam, were convicted and sentenced to life in prison.[40]
Shabazz had difficulty sleeping for weeks after Malcolm X's assassination. She suffered from nightmares in which she relived the death of her husband. She also worried about how she would support herself and her family. The publication of The Autobiography of Malcolm X helped, because Shabazz received half of the royalties.[41] (Alex Haley, who assisted Malcolm X in writing the book, got the other half. After the publication of his best-seller Roots, Haley signed over his portion of the royalties to Shabazz.[42][43])
Actor and activist Ruby Dee and Juanita Poitier (married to Sidney Poitier until 1965) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise funds to buy a house and pay educational expenses for the Shabazz family. The Committee held a series of benefit concerts at which they raised $17,000.[44][45] They bought a large two-family home in Mount Vernon, New York, from Congressmember Bella Abzug.[46][47]
Looking back, Shabazz said she initially made an "unrealistic decision" to isolate herself because of the injustice of her husband's assassination. She realized, however, that giving up because of her husband's death would not help the world. "It is impossible to create an environment for children to grow in and develop in isolation. It is imperative that one mix in society on some level and at some time."[10]
In late March 1965, Shabazz made the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), as her husband had the year before.[48] Recalling the experience in 1992, Shabazz wrote:
Shabazz returned from Mecca with a new name that a fellow pilgrim had bestowed upon her, Bahiyah (meaning "beautiful and radiant").[50]
Raising six children by herself exhausted Shabazz. Providing for them was difficult as well. Shabazz's share of the royalties from The Autobiography of Malcolm X was equivalent to an annual salary. In 1966, she sold the movie rights to the Autobiography to film-maker Marvin Worth. She began to authorize the publication of Malcolm X's speeches, which provided another source of income.[51]
When her daughters were enrolled in day care, Shabazz became an active member of the day care center's parents organization, where she became very fond of the organization and where she would later start a campaign to run the organization. In time, she became the parents' representative on the school board. Several years later, she became president of the Westchester Day Care Council.[52]
Shabazz began to accept speaking engagements at colleges and universities. She often spoke about the black nationalist philosophy of Malcolm X, but she also spoke about her role as a wife and mother.[53] Shabazz felt that some of the images of her husband projected by the media were misrepresentations. "They attempted to promote him as a violent person, a hater of whites," she explained. "He was a sensitive man, a very understanding person and yes, he disliked the behavior of some whites ... He had a reality-based agenda."[10]
As her daughters grew older, Shabazz sent them to private schools and summer camps. They joined Jack and Jill, a social club for the children of well-off African Americans.[54]
In late 1969, Shabazz enrolled at Jersey City State College (now New Jersey City University) to complete the degree in education she left behind when she became a nurse. She completed her undergraduate studies in one year, and decided to earn a master's degree in health administration. In 1972, Shabazz enrolled at the University of Massachusetts Amherst to pursue an Ed.D. in higher education administration and curriculum development. For the next three years, she drove from Mount Vernon to Amherst, Massachusetts, every Monday morning, and returned home Wednesday night. In July 1975, she defended her dissertation and earned her doctorate.[55]
Shabazz joined the New York Alumnae chapter of Delta Sigma Theta in April 1974.[56]
In January 1976, Shabazz became associate professor of health sciences with a concentration in nursing at New York's Medgar Evers College. The student body at Medgar Evers was 90 percent black and predominantly working-class, with an average age of 26. Black women made up most of the faculty, and 75 percent of the students were female, two-thirds of them mothers. These were all qualities that made Medgar Evers College attractive to Shabazz.[57]
By 1980, Shabazz was overseeing the health sciences department, and the college president decided she could be more effective in a purely administrative position than she was in the classroom. She was promoted to Director of Institutional Advancement. In her new position, she became a booster and fund-raiser for the college. A year later, she was given tenure. In 1984, Shabazz was given a new title, Director of Institutional Advancement and Public Affairs; she held that position at the college until her death.[58]
During the 1970s and 1980s, Shabazz continued her volunteer activities. In 1975, President Ford invited her to serve on the American Revolution Bicentennial Council. Shabazz served on an advisory committee on family planning for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. In 1984, she hosted the New York convention of the National Council of Negro Women. Shabazz became active in the NAACP and the National Urban League[59] and was a member of The Links.[60]: 102 When Nelson and Winnie Mandela visited Harlem during 1990, Shabazz was asked to introduce Winnie Mandela.[61]
Shabazz befriended Myrlie Evers-Williams, the widow of Medgar Evers, and Coretta Scott King, the widow of Martin Luther King Jr. They had the common experience of losing their activist husbands at a young age and raising their children as single mothers. The press came to refer to the three, who made numerous joint public appearances, as the "Movement widows". Evers-Williams and King were frequent guests at Medgar Evers College, and Shabazz occasionally visited the King Center in Atlanta.[62] Writing about Shabazz, Evers-Williams described her as a "free spirit, in the best sense of the word. When she laughed, she had this beauty; when she smiled, it lit up the whole room."[63]
For many years, Shabazz harbored resentment toward the Nation of Islam—and Louis Farrakhan in particular—for what she felt was their role in the assassination of her husband.[64] Farrakhan seemed to boast of the assassination in a 1993 speech:
In a 1994 interview, Gabe Pressman asked Shabazz whether Farrakhan "had anything to do" with Malcolm X's death. She replied: "Of course, yes. Nobody kept it a secret. It was a badge of honor. Everybody talked about it, yes."[67] Farrakhan denied the allegations, stating "I never had anything to do with Malcolm's death", although he said he had "created an atmosphere that allowed Malcolm to be assassinated."[67]
In January 1995, Qubilah Shabazz was charged with trying to hire a hit man to kill Farrakhan in retaliation for the murder of her father.[68] Farrakhan surprised the Shabazz family when he defended Qubilah, saying he did not think she was guilty and that he hoped she would not be convicted.[69] That May, Betty Shabazz and Farrakhan shook hands on the stage of the Apollo Theater during a public event intended to raise money for Qubilah's legal defense.[70] Some heralded the evening as a reconciliation between the two, but others thought Shabazz was doing whatever she had to in order to protect her daughter. Regardless, nearly $250,000 was raised that evening. In the aftermath, Shabazz maintained a cool relationship with Farrakhan, although she agreed to speak at his Million Man March that October.[71]
Qubilah accepted a plea agreement with respect to the charges, in which she maintained her innocence but accepted responsibility for her actions.[70] Under the terms of the agreement, she was required to undergo psychological counseling and treatment for drug and alcohol abuse for a two-year period in order to avoid a prison sentence.[72] For the duration of her treatment, Qubilah's ten-year-old son, Malcolm, was sent to live with Shabazz at her apartment in Yonkers, New York.[73]
On June 1, 1997, her 12-year-old grandson Malcolm set a fire in Shabazz's apartment. Shabazz suffered burns over 80 percent of her body, and remained in intensive care for three weeks, at Jacobi Medical Center in the Bronx, New York.[73][74] She underwent five skin-replacement operations as doctors struggled to replace damaged skin and save her life. Shabazz died of her injuries on June 23, 1997.[75] Malcolm Shabazz was sentenced to 18 months in juvenile detention for manslaughter and arson.[76][77]
More than 2,000 mourners attended a memorial service for Shabazz, at New York's Riverside Church. Many prominent leaders were present, including Coretta Scott King and Myrlie Evers-Williams, poet Maya Angelou, actor-activists Ossie Davis and Ruby Dee, New York Governor George Pataki, and four New York City mayors—Abraham Beame, Ed Koch, David Dinkins, and Rudy Giuliani. U.S. Secretary of Labor Alexis Herman delivered a tribute from President Bill Clinton.[78] In a statement released after Shabazz's death, civil rights leader Jesse Jackson said, "She never stopped giving and she never became cynical. She leaves today the legacy of one who epitomized hope and healing."[79]
Shabazz's funeral service was held at the Islamic Cultural Center in New York City. Her public viewing was at the Unity Funeral Home in Harlem, the same place where Malcolm X's viewing had taken place 32 years earlier. Shabazz was buried next to her husband, El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz (Malcolm X), at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[80]
In late 1997, the Community Healthcare Network renamed one of its Brooklyn, New York, clinics the Dr. Betty Shabazz Health Center, in honor of Shabazz.[81][82][c] The Betty Shabazz International Charter School was founded in Chicago, Illinois, in 1998 and named in her honor.[84] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[85] In March 2012, New York City co-named Broadway at the corner of West 165th Street, the corner in front of the Audubon Ballroom, Betty Shabazz Way.[86][87]
Shabazz was the subject of the 2013 television movie Betty & Coretta, in which she was played by Mary J. Blige.[88] Angela Bassett portrayed her in the 1992 film Malcolm X[89] and in a less prominent role in the 1995 film Panther.[90] Yolanda King, the daughter of Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King, played Shabazz in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet,[91] and Shabazz was portrayed by Victoria Dillard in the 2001 film Ali.[92] Joaquina Kalukango portrays her in the 2020 film One Night in Miami..., alongside Kingsley Ben-Adir as Malcolm X.[93] Shabazz was portrayed by Grace Porter in the second season of the 2019 TV series Godfather of Harlem.[94]
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Betty Shabazz, A Rights Voice, Dies of Burns
Betty Shabazz, who saw her husband, Malcolm X, assassinated 32 years ago and sought to preserve his memory and teachings in a life that became a symbol of perseverance to black America, died yesterday at a Bronx hospital, three weeks after suffering extensive burns in a fire apparently set by her troubled 12-year-old grandson. She was 61.
Dr. Shabazz had suffered third-degree burns over 80 percent of her body in the fire at her Yonkers apartment on June 1 and had undergone five operations at Jacobi Medical Center to replace burned tissue. Doctors had said her chances of survival were extremely low.
After weeks of a fight for life that seemed to defy the medical experts and to mirror her own decades of struggle, the death of Dr. Shabazz was met with an outpouring of grief and solemn statements by her family, political and civil rights leaders, colleagues and friends, and hundreds of ordinary people whose lives she had touched. $(Page D20.$)
''Our mother made a transition -- I'd like to think of it as that,'' Attallah Shabazz said at the hospital shortly after the announcement of death at 2:46 P.M. Ms. Shabazz is the eldest of the six daughters Dr. Shabazz raised while earning a doctorate and making a career for herself as a college official and a voice in the civil rights movement.
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''Her living life was very strong, and her fight here showed that endurance,'' Ms. Shabazz said, standing with her sisters. ''We are a family of daughters who got to learn a lot more about our mother, as have a lot of people around the globe.''
As many of the dignitaries and friends who had visited the hospital in recent weeks noted yesterday, the death of Dr. Shabazz was the latest tragedy in an extraordinary family that is still coping with a singular historical moment.
On Feb. 21, 1965, Dr. Shabazz, pregnant with twins, sat with her four small daughters in the Audubon Ballroom on 165th Street in Washington Heights as the tall, fiery orator who had been her husband for seven years prepared to address a crowd of 400 people. She was worried.
Malcolm X had undergone a conversion and renounced the black nationalist, virulently anti-white views of Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam, and was espousing moderate themes of black self-determination, even possible coalition with white people. Louis Farrakhan, a rising young star of the Nation of Islam, had vilified Malcolm X as a traitor.
His wife knew that he had many enemies. There had been death threats. A week earlier, the family's house in Elmhurst, Queens, had been firebombed in the night. But Malcolm X seemed undaunted as he stepped behind a flimsy lectern, intoned the Muslim salutation ''Salaam Aleikum,'' and began to speak.
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Suddenly, the killers closed in. Gunfire roared, and the terrible images were burned into her memory: Malcolm X's body, raked with bullets, falling at the front, wild confusion, her arms reaching out to cover her children on the floor; her own voice, like a stranger's, shouting: ''They're killing my husband!''
She was only 28, with little money, a big family and half an education. And if she had been a quiet helpmate to the tumultuous Malcolm X, she could hardly have foreseen the hardships of carrying on for one whose complex legacy would be claimed by radicals and conservatives, whose life would be explored in film, opera, books and essays, whose angry words would be celebrated by rap artists, and whose ''X'' would be emblazoned on caps and T-shirts across America.
''I'm private,'' Dr. Shabazz, who never remarried, said after Spike Lee's 1992 film ''Malcolm X'' created a new surge of interest in her husband. ''But there were some public things I had to do, because of his commitment to the cause. I loved him, and he loved the people.''
She survived at first on money from her husband's estate, on royalties from ''The Autobiography of Malcolm X,'' which was told to Alex Haley and published in 1965, and on fees for consulting work for Malcolm X College in Chicago and other institutions. Dr. Shabazz, who had attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and nursing school in New York, returned to classes at Brooklyn State Hospital and earned certification as a registered nurse.
Later, she attended Jersey State College and earned a bachelor's degree in public health education and a master's degree in early childhood education. In 1975, after a decade of juggling the obligations of motherhood, her studies, consulting work and public appearances, she received a doctorate in education administration from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
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A year later, Dr. Shabazz joined Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, a part of the City University, becoming director of communications and public relations, a position she held for many years. In recent years, she was director of institutional advancement, raising money for scholarships and books.
Meanwhile, she raised six daughters -- Attallah, Qubilah, Ilyasah, Gamilah and the twins Malikah and Malaak -- in Queens and later in Mount Vernon, N.Y., teaching them about their father by emulating his self-discipline. ''I taught them about him by myself being disciplined and strict,'' she said in a 1993 interview. ''My children think my persona is me, when actually it is their father's.''
The girls attended good schools. Qubilah graduated from the United Nations School in Manhattan, attended Princeton University and had a son, Malcolm Shabazz. The others include a playwright, a professional speaker and a singer.
Dr. Shabazz also began an irregular but busy speaking schedule, at high school and college commencements, at conferences on black history and race relations, on television and at the openings of plays, films and other events based on Malcolm X. She usually spoke of health and education for disadvantaged children, but also of Malcolm X and the causes for which he lived and died.
Alhough Malcolm X was enigmatic and controversial -- he preached black self-determination with the caveat ''by any means necessary'' -- Dr. Shabazz always struck positive themes in her recollections.
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''Malcolm's agenda was human rights and self-determination,'' she said in a 1992 interview with The Atlanta Journal and Constitution. ''Free people have a right to self-determination, self-defense. Now, a lot of people say, 'Self-defense? Oh, my God, that's violence.' If people think 'by any means necessary' means violence, what that says is that that individual is violent and hostile. But not my husband.''
The future wife of Malcolm X was born Betty Sanders in Detroit on May 28, 1936. She was adopted and raised by an upper-middle-class Methodist family, who sent her to Tuskegee. But she was determined to study nursing in New York, and met Malcolm X in 1956 at Mosque No. 7 in Harlem, one of the Nation of Islam's main temples.
She was 20 and he was the 30-year-old minister in charge, a charismatic orator with stunning confidence. ''He was just an awesome kind of guy,'' she recalled. ''He was disciplined. He knew what he was going to do, and if he said he was going to do it, he did it. And he had a certain kind of worldly maturity that women my age at the time just dreamed about.''
Only later did she learn that he had been born Malcolm Little, the son of a Nebraska preacher, and had grown up in Michigan, moved to Boston, become a thief and gone to prison. There, he had undergone a conversion to Islam and, after emerging from jail in 1952, became a sonlike aide to the Nation of Islam's leader, Elijah Muhammad.
In 1958, after a two-year relationship with Miss Sanders in which, by his own account, ''there had never been one personal word spoken between us,'' Malcolm X proposed marriage in a telephone call from Detroit. She accepted, convinced, as she later put it, of his greatness and of the importance of his work. They settled into a home in Queens and began raising a family.
By the early 1960's, many white Americans, and many blacks who had begun to put their hopes in integration and their faith in the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., saw Malcolm X as a menacing figure with a message of hate. He preached a militant black nationalism that branded whites as ''devils'' and dismissed Dr. King as an ''ignorant Negro preacher.''
In 1964, however, Malcolm X broke with Mr. Muhammad and was in turn denounced by Mr. Farrakhan, who succeeded him at Mosque No. 7 and at the right hand of Mr. Muhammad. Malcolm X went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, became a Sunni Muslim and chose a new name, El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, signifying rebirth. His wife became Betty Shabazz.
Returning home, he formed his own Muslim group and began preaching a message of black self-determination that allowed for some cooperation with whites of good will. While the ferocious images that had frightened many were softened in his last year, Malcolm X was constantly being vilified in the pages of ''Muhammad Speaks,'' the Black Muslim newspaper, and Mr. Farrakhan had said he was ''worthy of death.''
After Malcolm X's assassination, suspicion swirled around the Nation of Islam, and three Black Muslim zealots were eventually convicted of the killing. But for years afterward, speculation persisted that Mr. Farrakhan was somehow involved.
Throughout those years, the suspicions fed the tensions between Mr. Farrakhan and Dr. Shabazz's family. In a 1994 television interview, Dr. Shabazz strongly intimated that Mr. Farrakhan had been involved in the assassination. Mr. Farrakhan denied it, as he had many times.
In a bizarre twist to the feud, Dr. Shabazz's daughter, Qubilah, was charged in Minneapolis in 1995 with plotting to kill Mr. Farrakhan because she believed that he had had a role in her father's death and was a threat to her mother. She was said to have paid an old friend, who turned out to be a government informer, to carry out the plot.
After Ms. Shabazz's arrest, Dr. Shabazz and Mr. Farrakhan made a public reconciliation.
The indictment was dismissed last month under an agreement that required her to undergo two years of psychiatric and chemical dependency treatment, partly in Texas. Her son, Malcolm, 12, apparently angry over his mother's absence and his long stay with his grandmother, was said to have set the gasoline fire that fatally burned Dr. Shabazz.
Over the years, Dr. Shabazz was a frequent speaker at women's conferences as well as civil rights and education gatherings. She appeared at tributes, plays and other cultural events tied to her husband's name, including a 1986 opera called ''X.''
Her closest friends included Coretta Scott King, the widow of Dr. King, and Myrlie Evers-Williams, the chairwoman of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the widow of Medgar Evers, the civil rights leader slain in 1963.
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Shabazz, Betty
Betty Shabazz (b. Betty Dean Sanders, May 28, 1934, Pinehurst, Georgia – d. June 23, 1997, New York City, New York), also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was married to Malcolm X.
Shabazz was born in Pinehurst, Georgia, and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism. She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where she had her first encounters with racism. Unhappy with the situation in Alabama, she moved to New York City, where she became a nurse. It was there that she met Malcolm X and, in 1956, joined the Nation of Islam. The couple married in 1958.
Along with her husband, Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964. She witnessed his assassination the following year. Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a widow, Shabazz pursued higher education, and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
Following the 1995 arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan, Shabazz took in her ten-year-old grandson Malcolm. In 1997, her grandson, Malcolm, set fire to her apartment. Shabazz suffered severe burns and died three weeks later as a result of her injuries.
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Betty Shabazz (b. Betty Dean Sanders, May 28, 1934, Pinehurst, Georgia – d. June 23, 1997, New York City, New York), also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was married to Malcolm X.
Shabazz was born in Pinehurst, Georgia, and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism. She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where she had her first encounters with racism. Unhappy with the situation in Alabama, she moved to New York City, where she became a nurse. It was there that she met Malcolm X and, in 1956, joined the Nation of Islam. The couple married in 1958.
Along with her husband, Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964. She witnessed his assassination the following year. Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a widow, Shabazz pursued higher education, and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
Following the 1995 arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan, Shabazz took in her ten-year-old grandson Malcolm. In 1997, her grandson, Malcolm, set fire to her apartment. Shabazz suffered severe burns and died three weeks later as a result of her injuries.
Shabazz, Betty
Betty Shabazz (b. Betty Dean Sanders, May 28, 1934, Pinehurst, Georgia – d. June 23, 1997, New York City, New York), also known as Betty X, was an American educator and civil rights advocate. She was married to Malcolm X.
Shabazz was born in Pinehurst, Georgia, and grew up in Detroit, Michigan, where her foster parents largely sheltered her from racism. She attended the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, where she had her first encounters with racism. Unhappy with the situation in Alabama, she moved to New York City, where she became a nurse. It was there that she met Malcolm X and, in 1956, joined the Nation of Islam. The couple married in 1958.
Along with her husband, Shabazz left the Nation of Islam in 1964. She witnessed his assassination the following year. Left with the responsibility of raising six daughters as a widow, Shabazz pursued higher education, and went to work at Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York.
Following the 1995 arrest of her daughter Qubilah for allegedly conspiring to murder Louis Farrakhan, Shabazz took in her ten-year-old grandson Malcolm. In 1997, her grandson, Malcolm, set fire to her apartment. Shabazz suffered severe burns and died three weeks later as a result of her injuries.
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Junior Wells (b. Amos Wells Blakemore Jr., December 9, 1934, Memphis, Tennessee, or West Memphis, Arkansas - d. January 15, 1998, Chicago, Illinois) was raised in West Memphis, Arkansas (some sources report that he was born in West Memphis). Initially taught by his cousin, Junior Parker, and by Sonny Boy Williamson II. Wells learned to play the harmonica skillfully by the age of seven.
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