1932 Africa

Africa

*****

Nnamdi Azikiwe

*Nnamdi Azikiwe, the future first president of Nigeria, received a master's degree in religion from Lincoln University, a historically black university located in Chester County, Pennsylvania.


Democratic Republic of the Congo

(Zaire)

*Etienne Tshisekedi, a leader of the Union for Democracy and Social Progress in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire), was born in Luluabourg (December 14).

Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba (b. December 14, 1932, Luluabourg, Belgian Congo (now called Kabeya Kamwanga, Kasai-Occidental,  Democratic Republic of the Congo) – d. February 1, 2017,  Brussels, Belgium) was a Congolese politician and the leader of the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS), the main opposing political party in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). A long-time opposition leader, he served as Prime Minister of the country (then called Zaire) on three brief occasions: in 1991, 1992–1993, and 1997.

Tshisekedi, was the main Congolese opposition leader for decades. Although he served in the government of dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in various positions, he also led the campaign against Mobutu, and was one of few politicians who challenged the dictator.

Tshisekedi and his UDPS party, boycotted the 2006 elections organized in Congo on claims that elections were fraudulent and were systematically rigged in advance.

He was a candidate for President of Congo in the 2011 elections that many national and international observers, notably the Carter Center, have said lacked credibility and transparency. Having officially lost to incumbent Joseph Kabila, Tshisekedi nevertheless declared himself the "elected president" of Congo. Policemen and Kabila's presidential guards were subsequently stationed at every corner that gives entrance to Tshisekedi's residence, placing him under unofficial house arrest. 

In 1932, Étienne Tshisekedi, son of Alexis Mulumba and his wife Agnès Kabena, was born in Luluabourg, Belgian Congo (now called Kananga, Kasai-Occidental,  Democratic Republic of the Congo). Ethnically, he was a member of the Luba people. Tshisekedi attended primary school at Kabaluanda (West Kasai ) and obtained a doctorate diploma in 1961 at the Lovanium University School of Law in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa).  He was the first Congolese to ever get a doctorate diploma in law.

Tshisekedi's career was intertwined with the political history of his country. Congo won independence in 1960 from Belgium (which is one-eightieth the size of Congo geographically).

Advisor to Patrice Lumumba of the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), Tshisekedi left the MNC to follow Albert Kalonji on his secessionist adventure in Kasai, acting as Minister of Justice in the newly autonomous State of South Kasai.  As a result of the loss of tax revenues from the rich Katanga and South Kasai provinces, Lumumba's government lost virtually all resources, and tried to suppress the secession.

In November 1965, Tshisekedi took part in the second Mobutu coup which led to the impeachment of President Kasavubu and his prime minister Kimba. Tshisekedi allegedly approved the execution of Kimba and his companions on the day of Pentecost, June 2, 1966.

Tshisekedi was a high-ranking member of the various governments formed by dictator Mobutu Sese Seko,  who was president from 1965 to 1997. Tshisekedi helped amend the Congolese Constitution in 1967. After the second coup of Mobutu, in 1965, Tshisekedi held ministerial positions.  As such, Tshisekedi was instrumental in managing the country, allegedly based on the misappropriation of public funds and neutralization of all opposition.  Tshisekedi remained in the Central Committee of the Popular Movement of the Revolution (Mouvement Populaire de la Revolution, MPR) until the early 1980s.

Relations with Mobutu ruptured around 1980, and Tshisekedi was removed from Mobutu's government. At that time, Tshisekedi formed the country's first opposition party, the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS), to counter the ruling MPR. Tshisekedi thus became the main voice for opponents of the dictatorship, in the country that was then called Zaire. That status enabled him to mobilize public opinion and the international community, and he continued advocating for change during Mobutu's tenure. In 1980, Tshisekedi was thrown in prison for criticism of Mobutu's repressive regime. He was imprisoned numerous times by Mobutu's government.

In 1989, during Mobutu's rule, several cases of his detention were described as unlawful by the United Nations Human Rights Committee.

On February 15, 1982, Tshisekedi co-founded the Union for Democracy and Social Progress (UDPS). The party was popular in Congo's capital Kinshasa, the two Kasai and Bas-Congo provinces as well as other provinces, with its main goal being a non-violent change to democratic rule.

With the country in economic turmoil in the early 1990s, partly due to Mobutu's loss of Western support after the Cold War, Mobutu bowed to pressure and promised a transition to multiparty democracy. Tshisekedi, who was Mobutu's most determined and popular rival, became Prime Minister on three separate occasions. The first lasted only one month (September 29, 1991 – November 1, 1991) before Mobutu sacked him, and the second only seven months (August 15, 1992 – March 18, 1993). Both times, Tshisekedi asserted that he was prevented from functioning properly by Mobutu. The third term, while Laurent-Desire Kabila's rebel forces were marching on Kinshasa, lasted only a week (April 2, 1997 – April 9, 1997) and was again ended by Mobutu's lack of cooperation. A month later Laurent Kabila overthrew Mobutu, in connection with the First Congo War.  

Laurent Kabila ruled by decree and banned party politics until general elections planned for 1999. In 1998, a constitutional committee drew up a list of 250 people who would not be allowed to run for President, including Tshisekedi. He was sent into internal exile in February 1998, after he was accused of violating the ban on party politics.

President Laurent Kabila was assassinated in 2001, and was succeeded ten days later by his son, Joseph Kabila. Tshisekedi refused to enter the government of Joseph Kabila, or the previous government of his father, and likened them to Mobutu.

In the run-up to the 2006 national elections, Tshisekedi decided to boycott the electoral process and the constitutional referendum because he believed they were rigged in advance.

Joseph Kabila won the presidential election. Tshisekedi considered the elections of 2006 to be a "masquerade" and claimed that Kabila's election was decided in advance by influential people outside Congo. Kabila defeated Jean-Pierre Bemba, with Tshisekedi on the sidelines.

In August 2011, Tshisekedi sought to negotiate with other opposition parties to form a joint effort against incumbent Joseph Kabila. This was Tshisekedi's first bid for the presidency since forming the country's first opposition party in 1982. Candidates campaigned relatively freely, and Tshisekedi held large rallies. But neither candidate was prepared to admit defeat.

Tshisekedi pointed not only to the lack of democracy, but also to the lack of water and electricity, as reasons to elect him. He said that a vote for him would be a vote for a 30-year fight to uphold the rule of law and good governance in Congo. Tshisekedi was supported by about 80 political parties, but he had adversaries within the opposition, such as Vital Kamerhe, Nzanga Mobutu (son of the former dictator), and Senate president Kengo Wa Dondo. Tshisekedi said that none of them had been in the opposition long enough to be credible.

This time around, Bemba (the 2006 presidential candidate) was sidelined, on trial at the International Criminal Court in The Hague for alleged war crimes in 2002–2003. The election was held on November 28, 2011.

Many national and international observers, notably the Carter Center, said the election was marred with serious irregularities and lacked credibility and transparency. Tshisekedi rejected the results announced by the CENI, the body responsible for the organization of elections, saying that they did not reflect the will of the people, and declared himself the "elected president" of Congo. Tshisekedi held a private inauguration ceremony after police used tear gas to disperse a public inauguration.

Vital Kamerhe, a former ally of President Kabila, rejected the results announced by the CENI and said that Tshisekedi had actually won the election. Several other opposition candidates recognized Tshisekedi as the victor, and called for the election to be annulled.

In addition to the Carter Center, an observer mission from the European Union noted the lack of transparency, and the archbishop of Kinshasa, Cardinal Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya claimed that the results announced by the CENI did not reflect the will of the people. These and other observations compromised the integrity of the presidential election, according to the Carter Center. MONUSCO, the peacekeeping mission of the United Nations, also voiced concern about the results.

The election result was confirmed by the Supreme Court of the Democratic Republic of Congo.  A day after holding a hearing of the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on African Affairs on governance in the DRC, Senators Chris Coons (D-Del.) and Johnny Isakson (R-Ga.) of the United States Senate expressed deep concern about the ruling of the Congolese Supreme Court. Then, on December 20, 2011, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton expressed serious disappointment with the Congolese supreme court decision.

Tshisekedi urged the armed forces to disobey Kabila, and added that he would offer a "great prize" to anyone who captured President Joseph Kabila.

Tshisekedi's party headquarters was burglarized after his inauguration. Tshisekedi was said to be under house arrest.

The rebel March 23 Movement, which captured the city of Goma in November 2012, listed the release of Tshisekedi as one of their demands and claimed to be willing to leave the provincial capital of North Kivu if he was granted freedom of movement, among other things.

Amidst rumors of serious health problems, Tshisekedi was flown to Belgium for treatment on August 16, 2014. Responding to the rumors about his condition, his party said that he was not seriously ill.  On January 9, 2016, Tshisekedi, who was still in Brussels and apparently still ill, released a video message in which he vowed that he would "soon be among you so we can unite our efforts to win". Observers noted that the opposition leader seemed "frail" and had trouble speaking. He finally returned to Congo on July 27, 2016 and was greeted by a massive crowd of supporters upon arrival at the airport in Kinshasa. At a massive rally in Kinshasa on July 31, Tshisekedi demanded that elections proceed on schedule before the end of 2016, contrary to suggestions from the authorities that a delay might be necessary, allowing Kabila to remain in office.

On January 24, 2017, Tshisekedi left the DRC to travel to Belgium for medical treatment. The 84-year-old died a week later on 1 February 1, 2017 in Brussels.

Ethiopia

(Abyssinia) 

*In 1932, the Sultanate of Jimma was formally absorbed into Ethiopia following the death of Sultan Abba Jifar II of Jimma.

*Haile Selassie announced an anti-slavery law in Abyssinia (April 17). 

*Abebe Bikila, the 1960 and 1964 Olympic marathon champion, was born in Jato, Abyssinia (August 7). 

Abebe Bikila (b. August 7, 1932, Jato, Abyssinia – d. October 25, 1973, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia) was a double Olympic marathon champion from Ethiopia, most famous for winning a marathon gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics while running barefoot, was born in Jato, Ethiopia.

Abebe Bikila was born on August 7, 1932, in the small community of Jato, located 25 kilometers (16 miles) outside the town of Mendida, Ethiopia. His birth coincided with the day of the 1932 Los Angeles Olympic Marathon. His father was a shepherd. Abebe decided to work for the Imperial Bodyguard to support his family, and walked over 20 kilometers (12 miles) to Addis Ababa where he started as a private bodyguard for the members of the royal family.

Onni Niskanen, a Finnish-born Swede, was hired by the Ethiopian government to train potential athletes. He soon spotted Bikila and began to train him.

Abebe was added to the Ethiopian Olympic team only at the last moment, as the plane to Rome was about to leave, as a replacement for Wami Biratu, who was seriously ill. Major Onni Niskanen entered Abebe and Abebe Wakjira in the marathon.

Adidas, the shoe sponsor at the 1960 Summer Olympics, had few shoes left when Abebe went to try out shoes and he ended up with a pair that didn’t fit comfortably, so he could not use them. A couple of hours before the race, Abebe decided to run barefoot, the way he had trained for the race. Abebe was warned by Niskanen about his main rivals, one of whom was Rhadi Ben Abdesselam from Morocco, who was supposed to wear number 26. For unknown reasons, Rhadi did not acquire his black marathon bib before the race, and instead was wearing his regularly assigned track and field bib number 185.

The late afternoon race had its starting point at the foot of the great staircase of the Capitoline Hill.  The finish was at the Arch of Constantine, just outside the Colosseum.

 Abebe's coach, Onni Niskanen, decided that Bikila, running barefooted, should make his final move a little more than one kilometer from the finish line. It was at this point that the course passed the obelisk of Axum, a monument that had been plundered from Ethiopia by Italian troops and hauled away to Rome. When Bikila reached the obelisk, he was running even with Rhadi Ben Abdesselem of Morocco.

During the race Abebe passed numerous runners as he searched for Rhadi's number 26. By about 20 km, Abebe and Rhadi (actually wearing number 185) had created a gap from the rest of the pack. Abebe kept looking forward to find the runner with number 26, unaware that Rhadi was running right beside him. They stayed together until the last 500 meters, when Abebe sprinted to the finish line. Abebe won in a record time of 2:15:16.2, becoming the first Sub-Saharan African to win an Olympic gold medal. He finished 25 seconds ahead of Rhadi.  

On December 13, 1960, while Haile Selassie was on a state visit to Brazil, his Imperial Guard forces, led by General Mengistu Neway, staged an unsuccessful coup, briefly proclaiming Selassie's eldest son Asfa Wossen as Emperor. Fighting took place in the heart of Addis Ababa, shells detonated inside the Jubilee Palace, and many of those closest to the Emperor were killed.

Abebe took no part in the uprising, but was briefly held in detention after the coup. Most of the surviving Guards were disbanded and dispersed. One newspaper remarked boldly: "Abebe owes his life to his gold medal."

In 1961, Abebe ran marathons in Greece, Japan, and Kosice in Czechoslovakia, all of which he won. Abebe entered the 1963 Boston Marathon and finished in just 5th place—the only time in his career that he finished a marathon and did not win. He returned to Ethiopia but did not compete in another marathon until the one in Addis Ababa in 1964. He won this race, taking 2:23:14 to complete the course.

Forty days prior to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, during a training run near Addis Ababa, Abebe Bikila started to feel pain. Unaware of the cause of the pain, he attempted to overcome this pain but collapsed. He was taken to the hospital where he was diagnosed with acute appendicitis.  He was operated on and shortly thereafter, and even during his recovery period, he started jogging in the hospital courtyard at night.

Abebe Bikila traveled to Tokyo but was not expected to compete. Nevertheless, he did line up for the marathon.  He used the same strategy as in 1960: to stay with the leaders until the 20 kilometer point, then slowly increase his pace. After 15 kilometers he only had company from Ron Clarke of Australia and Jim Hogan of Ireland. Shortly before 20 kilometers only Hogan was in contention and by 30 kilometers, Abebe was 40 seconds in front of Hogan and two minutes in front of Kokichi Tsuburaya of Japan. Abebe entered the Olympic stadium alone to the cheers of 70,000 spectators. He finished the marathon in a new Olympic record time of 2:12:11.2; 4 minutes, 8 seconds in front of the silver medalist Basil Heatley of Great Britain. Kokichi Tsuburaya was third. He was the first athlete in history to win the Olympic marathon twice. After finishing he astonished the crowd: not appearing exhausted, he started a routine of stretching exercises. He later stated that he could have run another 10 kilometers.

Abebe returned to Ethiopia to a hero's welcome once again. He was again promoted by the Emperor, and he received his own truck, a white Volkswagen Beetle with some upgrades.

In 1968, Abebe and his countryman, Mamo Wolde, were entered in the marathon (symbolically, Abebe was issued bib number 1 for this race). This time, however, Abebe had to leave the race after approximately 17 kilometers due to an injury to his right knee. Abebe was relegated to watching his friend and long time running partner Mamo Wolde win the gold medal. Mamo Wolde later stated that if Abebe had not been injured, he would surely have won.

In 1969, during civil unrest in Addis, Abebe was driving his Volkswagen Beetle when he had to swerve to avoid a group of protesting students. He lost control of his car and it landed in a ditch, trapping him. He was freed out of the car but the accident left him quadriplegic.  He was operated on at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England and his condition improved to paraplegic. Niskanen convinced him to compete in archery competitions for athletes in wheelchairs and Abebe joked that he would win the next Olympic marathon in a wheelchair.

Abebe was invited as a special guest to the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, where he witnessed his countryman Mamo Wolde fail to match Abebe's twin marathon victories; Wolde finished third behind American Frank Shorter and Belgium's Karel Lismont. After Shorter received his gold medal, he went to Abebe to shake his hand.

On October 25, 1973, Abebe Bikila died in Addis Ababa at the age of 41 from a cerebral hemorrhage, a complication related to the accident of four years earlier. He left behind his wife and four children. His funeral in Addis Ababa was attended by 75,000 people. Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia proclaimed a national day of mourning for the country's national hero. Newspapers throughout Africa eulogized him as an inspiration to their own distance runners, some of whom won gold medals in future Olympics. Abebe was interred at Saint Joseph's Church Cemetery in Addis Ababa.

Five years after his death, the New York Road Runners inaugurated an annual award in his honor – the Abebe Bikila Award, which is given to individuals for their contributions to long-distance running.

A stadium in Addis Ababa is named in his honor. The American Community School of Addis Ababa dedicated its gymnasium to Abebe Bikila in the late 1960s. In August 2005, with the assistance of A Glimmer of Hope Foundation and its supporters Isabel and Dave Welland, an Oromo school named Yaya Abebe Bikila Primary Village School was erected in Abebe's honor by the local Mendida community. The school sits a few hundred meters from the remains of the village of Jato.

Abebe's victory at the 1964 Olympics is featured in the 1965 documentary film Tokyo Olympiad.  Footage from that film was later recycled for the 1976 thriller film Marathon Man.

Abebe was also featured in the Bud Greenspan film The Marathon. It chronicled his two Olympic victories and ended with a dedication ceremony for a gymnasium named for him shortly before his death.

Namibia

(South-West Africa)

*German was made an official language in South-West Africa (Namibia) alongside English and Afrikaans (December 17).

Nigeria

*Yaba Higher College was established.

Yaba Higher College the brainchild of E. R. J. Hussey, who became Director of Education in Nigeria in 1929. Soon after arriving, he proposed a higher college at Yaba similar to the Makerere College in Uganda, his previous posting. The goal was at first to train assistants for government departments and private firms, with a gradual increase in standards until eventually the college would reach the level of a British university. Hussey gained acceptance of the plan, starting with a special medical school at King's College. By 1932 the school had its own building - a temporary hut - and other courses were added.

The college at Yaba was an all-male residential institute. It was officially opened in January 1934. It provided vocational training in subjects that included agriculture, forestry, medicine, veterinary science, surveying and civil and mechanical engineering. It also provided training for secondary school teachers, mainly science teachers. Yaba was affiliated with the University of London. The college offered limited diplomas, so Nigerians who wanted higher education either had to go abroad or earn external degrees from the University of London through correspondence courses.

Educated Nigerians were vocally critical of Yaba College. Four days after the college opening, the Nigerian Daily Times described it as "a grand idea, and imposing structure, resting on rather weak foundations". Noting the low standards of the Middle Schools, whose graduates would enter Yaba, the Daily Times said "..we wish to declare emphatically that this country will not be satisfied with an inferior brand [of education] such as the present scheme seems to threaten". The Nigerian Youth Movement, formed by members of the Lagos intelligentsia who were protesting the plan for Yaba College, soon became an important nationalist organization.

Sierra Leone

*Alhaji Ahmad Kabbah, the President of Sierra Leone from 1996 to 1997 and from 1998 to 2007, was born. 

Ahmad Tejan Kabbah,   (b. February 16, 1932, Pendembu, Kailahun district, British Protectorate of Sierra Leone - d. March 13, 2014, Freetown, Sierra Leone),  was a Sierra Leonean politician who served twice as his country’s president (March 29, 1996–May 25, 1997, and Feb. 13, 1998–Sept. 17, 2007).   He was ultimately compelled to call on foreign military assistance to quash Sierra Leone’s decadelong civil war (1991–2002) and bring peace to the country. Kabbah was born into a Muslim family but attended a Christian school in Freetown before matriculating in economics at the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth (B.Sc., 1959), and being called to the bar (1969) at Gray’s Inn, London. He joined the civil service in Sierra Leone, but a military coup in 1967 prompted him to work for the United Nations Development Programme in other African countries for more than two decades. He returned home in the early 1990s, became leader of the Sierra Leone People’s Party, and was elected president in March 1996. After a coup toppled his administration the following year, Kabbah called on the United Nations, troops from the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group, and eventually (in 2000) British forces to restore him to office. He was overwhelmingly re-elected in 2002 to another five-year term. Although he failed to build a strong national economy, Kabbah maintained political stability, and in 2007 he oversaw a peaceful transfer of power to his elected successor from the opposition All People’s Congress.

*****
South Africa

*South Africa forbade all export of gold (December 27).

*South Africa abandoned the gold standard.

Although the use of gold as currency is as old as recorded history, the modern gold standard began in 1816 when Britain passed the Gold Standards Act, which ensured that gold coins became the only real measure of value.  Five years later, in 1821, Britain adopted the gold bullion standard, making it possible for Britons to convert their money into gold on demand.  It was very much a measure of the wealth of Britain and its growing dominance at the center of the world trade.  The United States, for example, did not join the growing number of nations on the gold standard until 1879.

The gold standard remained more or less intact throughout the first quarter of the 20th century, except for a few years during World War I when the normal flow of international trade was interrupted by warfare.  South Africa, however, did not re-adopt the gold standard -- this time based on gold coin rather than bullion -- until 1925.

During the days of the gold standard, the price of gold was generally fixed by international agreement -- so that gold could be used as an international currency for the settling of debts.  Consequently, the gold standard among major trading countries until after World War I provided an automatic mechanism for adjusting a nation's balance of payments (the difference between the amount of goods, imported and exported, either surplus or deficit) and regulating its internal economy.  A balance of payments surplus naturally led to an inflow of gold, which allowed interest rates to fall and economic activity to accelerate, including employment.  However, over time, more money led to increased prices and imports from other countries -- and so the opposite began to happen and the balance of payments deteriorated.  Once a deficit appeared, the outflow of gold slowed down the economy and unemployment rose.

As history shows, the gold standard proved to be particularly harsh on nations -- and people -- with a continuing balance of payments deficit, being more concerned with the debits between nations than the internal economy.  The terrible unemployment that flowed from the Wall Street crash in the 1930s made governments (including the government of South Africa) realize that sticking to the gold standard was too costly when measured against the misery of unemployment it caused at home.

*****

*Miriam Makeba, a South African singer and civil rights activist, was born in Prospect Township, Johannesburg, South Africa (March 4). 

Zenzile Miriam Makeba (b. March 4, 1932, Prospect Township, Johannesburg, South Africa – d. November 9, 2008, Castel Volturno, Italy), nicknamed Mama Africa, was a South African singer and civil rights activist. In the 1960s, Makeba was the first artist from Africa to popularize African music around the world. She is best known for the song "Pata Pata", first recorded in 1957 and released in the United States in 1967. She recorded and toured with many popular artists, such as Harry Belafonte, Paul Simon, and her former husband Hugh Masekela. 

The daughter of a Swazi mother and a Xhosa father, Makeba grew up in Sophiatown, a segregated black township outside of Johannesburg and began singing in a school choir at an early age. She became a professional vocalist in 1954, performing primarily in southern Africa. By the late 1950s, her singing and recording had made her well-known in South Africa, and her appearance in the documentary film Come Back, Africa (1959) attracted the interest of Harry Belafonte and other American performers. With their help, Makeba, in 1959, settled in the United States, where she embarked on a successful singing and recording career. She sang a variety of popular songs but especially excelled at Xhosa and Zulu songs, which she introduced to Western audiences. She was denied re-entry into South Africa in 1960, and she lived in exile for three decades thereafter. In 1963, the South African apartheid government banned her records and revoked her passport. 

In 1964. Makeba married trumpeter and fellow Belafonte protégé Hugh Masekela.  Although the couple divorced two years later, they maintained a close professional relationship. In 1965, Makeba and Belafonte won a Grammy Award for best folk recording for their album An Evening with Belafonte/Makeba.Makeba married the American black activist Stokely Carmichael in 1968, a circumstance that led to the decline of her career in the United States. She relocated with Carmichael to Africa, settled in Guinea, and then moved to Belgium, continuing to record and tour in Africa and Europe.  Makeba and Carmichael divorced in 1979. Her autobiography, Makeba: My Story (co-authored with James Hall), appeared in 1988. 

Makeba campaigned against the South African system of apartheid. The South African government responded by revoking her passport in 1960 and her citizenship and right of return in 1963. In 1990, Nelson Mandela, who had just been released from his extended imprisonment, encouraged Makeba to return to South Africa, and she performed there in 1991 for the first time since her exile. 

Although she was plagued by health problems, Makeba continued to perform in subsequent years. Makeba died of a heart attack on November 9, 2008 after performing in a concert in Italy organized to support writer Roberto Saviano in his stand against the Camorra, a mafia-like organization local to the region of Campania. 

Among the songs for which she is internationally known are “Pata Pata” and one known as the “Click Song” in English (“Qongqothwane” in Xhosa). Makeba made 30 original albums, in addition to 19 compilation albums and appearances on the recordings of several other musicians.

*****

Uganda

 *Bernard Bourdillon was appointed Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Uganda. {See 1935.}